Panel_14413 Panel_14413 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Development of a liquid-rich gas play in the Duvernay shale has increased the need for models that explain and predict rock properties such as lithology, organic-richness, porosity, permeability, and fracturability. We present here detailed depositional and sequence stratigraphic models based on examination of drill cores across the basin, integrated with organic and inorganic geochemistry, that enable us to predict key rock properties. Shale lithologies show systematic variation related to sequence stratigraphic systems tracts. Transgressive and early highstand deposits are composed of laminated to massive, organic-rich, siliceous mudstones. Sedimentation is dominated by suspension settling of fine grained calcite, silt, organic matter, and calcareous and siliceous micro-organisms. Uncommon traction currents form millimeter-thick debris beds enriched in silt- to fine-sand sized calcite shell debris and limestone intraclasts. Bioturbation is uncommon in basinal areas but is minor to moderate on paleobathymetric highs. Highstand deposits show an increase in abundance of bioclast- and intraclast-rich debris beds. Minor increases in terrigenous material are seen as clay- to silt-sized quartz deposited predominantly from suspension. Bioturbation is more common and TOC values are typically lower. Stillstand or lowstand deposits are commonly composed of nodular carbonates with increased argillaceous content and show increased fissility, intense bioturbation, and moderately to drastically reduced TOC values. In locations proximal to reef buildups, coarse-grained intraclastic and fossiliferous wackestone-packstone debris beds and breccias become common. Subsequent transgression may result in hardground cementation at the top of lowstand deposits. Transgressive and highstand deposits are the most prospective for unconventional reservoir exploration. Organic matter content is highest in TST and HST deposits and increased biogenic silica creates brittle, non-fissile strata. Lowstand/stillstand deposits are organic-lean, may have increased fissility and are therefore less prospective. Lowstand/stillstand deposits may also be capped by heavily-cemented hardgrounds that, if thick enough can result in reservoir compartmentalization. Development of a liquid-rich gas play in the Duvernay shale has increased the need for models that explain and predict rock properties such as lithology, organic-richness, porosity, permeability, and fracturability. We present here detailed depositional and sequence stratigraphic models based on examination of drill cores across the basin, integrated with organic and inorganic geochemistry, that enable us to predict key rock properties. Shale lithologies show systematic variation related to sequence stratigraphic systems tracts. Transgressive and early highstand deposits are composed of laminated to massive, organic-rich, siliceous mudstones. Sedimentation is dominated by suspension settling of fine grained calcite, silt, organic matter, and calcareous and siliceous micro-organisms. Uncommon traction currents form millimeter-thick debris beds enriched in silt- to fine-sand sized calcite shell debris and limestone intraclasts. Bioturbation is uncommon in basinal areas but is minor to moderate on paleobathymetric highs. Highstand deposits show an increase in abundance of bioclast- and intraclast-rich debris beds. Minor increases in terrigenous material are seen as clay- to silt-sized quartz deposited predominantly from suspension. Bioturbation is more common and TOC values are typically lower. Stillstand or lowstand deposits are commonly composed of nodular carbonates with increased argillaceous content and show increased fissility, intense bioturbation, and moderately to drastically reduced TOC values. In locations proximal to reef buildups, coarse-grained intraclastic and fossiliferous wackestone-packstone debris beds and breccias become common. Subsequent transgression may result in hardground cementation at the top of lowstand deposits. Transgressive and highstand deposits are the most prospective for unconventional reservoir exploration. Organic matter content is highest in TST and HST deposits and increased biogenic silica creates brittle, non-fissile strata. Lowstand/stillstand deposits are organic-lean, may have increased fissility and are therefore less prospective. Lowstand/stillstand deposits may also be capped by heavily-cemented hardgrounds that, if thick enough can result in reservoir compartmentalization. Panel_14777 Panel_14777 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The lower Miocene (LM; 23-15Ma) is an interval during which voluminous sediments were eroded from North American interior highlands and transported into deep water of the Gulf of Mexico Basin. Rich hydrocarbon resources are found in LM reservoirs, including an evolving play beneath the thick salt canopy. Complex salt structures and degradation of seismic imaging beneath the salt canopy makes it difficult to identify sediment sources and track dispersal pathways. We employ detrital zircon (DZ) U-Pb and (U-Th)/He double dating to define both basement provenance and exhumation histories of detrital source regions. Outcrop samples and drilling core materials have been collected along the northern Gulf coast, to discriminate sediment pathways. Samples from Texas and Louisiana are dominated by relatively young zircons from 25 - 300 Ma, mainly sourced from Oligocene volcanic centers, regions of Laramide uplift and the Cordilleran Arc. Minor age populations of 1.5 - 1.3 Ga and 1.8 - 1.6 Ga zircons indicate an additional source from the Yavapai-Mazatzal basement and granitic intrusions in the southwestern U.S. Zircon ages of 1.3 - 1.0 Ga are also common and probably represent recycled materials from the southwestern U.S., originally sourced from eastern Grenville basement. Samples from Mississippi and Florida show distinct age distributions, with most ages from 1.3 - 1.0 Ga and 300 – 100 Ma, indicating a dominant Appalachian source. The provenance signal changes gradually from west to east across the northern GOM margin. The DZ age populations suggest five drainage systems associated with different source terranes, including the Paleo-Rio Grande, Paleo-Red, Paleo-Mississippi, and Paleo-Tennessee rivers and a local river system in Florida draining from the Appalachians. These signals are robust provenance indicators for deepwater sediment source analysis. Sediment recycling is a common issue that complicates provenance interpretations. We integrate (U-Th)/He ages to distinguish recycled zircons from direct-source zircons. Two different Grenville-age zircon sources are differentiated by our U-Pb and (U-Th)/He ages. Sediments in Texas show a mixed zircon source from both local Grenville basement (Llano uplift) and eastern Appalachian Grenville basement, recycled via the Colorado Plateau. In contrast, sediment in Louisiana lacks Grenville zircons sourced directly from the Llano uplift, indicating a well-defined drainage system divide between Texas and Louisiana. The lower Miocene (LM; 23-15Ma) is an interval during which voluminous sediments were eroded from North American interior highlands and transported into deep water of the Gulf of Mexico Basin. Rich hydrocarbon resources are found in LM reservoirs, including an evolving play beneath the thick salt canopy. Complex salt structures and degradation of seismic imaging beneath the salt canopy makes it difficult to identify sediment sources and track dispersal pathways. We employ detrital zircon (DZ) U-Pb and (U-Th)/He double dating to define both basement provenance and exhumation histories of detrital source regions. Outcrop samples and drilling core materials have been collected along the northern Gulf coast, to discriminate sediment pathways. Samples from Texas and Louisiana are dominated by relatively young zircons from 25 - 300 Ma, mainly sourced from Oligocene volcanic centers, regions of Laramide uplift and the Cordilleran Arc. Minor age populations of 1.5 - 1.3 Ga and 1.8 - 1.6 Ga zircons indicate an additional source from the Yavapai-Mazatzal basement and granitic intrusions in the southwestern U.S. Zircon ages of 1.3 - 1.0 Ga are also common and probably represent recycled materials from the southwestern U.S., originally sourced from eastern Grenville basement. Samples from Mississippi and Florida show distinct age distributions, with most ages from 1.3 - 1.0 Ga and 300 – 100 Ma, indicating a dominant Appalachian source. The provenance signal changes gradually from west to east across the northern GOM margin. The DZ age populations suggest five drainage systems associated with different source terranes, including the Paleo-Rio Grande, Paleo-Red, Paleo-Mississippi, and Paleo-Tennessee rivers and a local river system in Florida draining from the Appalachians. These signals are robust provenance indicators for deepwater sediment source analysis. Sediment recycling is a common issue that complicates provenance interpretations. We integrate (U-Th)/He ages to distinguish recycled zircons from direct-source zircons. Two different Grenville-age zircon sources are differentiated by our U-Pb and (U-Th)/He ages. Sediments in Texas show a mixed zircon source from both local Grenville basement (Llano uplift) and eastern Appalachian Grenville basement, recycled via the Colorado Plateau. In contrast, sediment in Louisiana lacks Grenville zircons sourced directly from the Llano uplift, indicating a well-defined drainage system divide between Texas and Louisiana. Panel_14774 Panel_14774 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The architecture of submarine channel fills records both erosion and deposition related to variations in gravity flow characteristics (e.g. magnitude, composition, density), combined with changes in the slope morphology induced by tectonics, channel avulsions, and aggradation (Kneller, 2003; Pirmez et al., 2000). Understanding outcrop in deep-water channelized systems is essential to define sub-seismic facies architecture, and predict reservoir quality. Based on architectural elements, this work uses logs and photo-interpretation to define main differences in depositional features and flow regimes of two coarse-grained end members deposited in similar slope settings; Cerro Toro Formation, Magallanes Foreland Basin, Southern Chile; and Rosario Formation, Peninsular Ranges Fore-arc Basin, Baja California, Mexico. Extensive mapping and logging combined with photo/image treatment and interpretation have been used to understand in greater detail the main differences in terms of processes and deposits of highly turbulent Newtonian flows (turbidity currents), non-Newtonian, potentially laminar flows (debris flows), and hybrid flows that may be transitional flows between the two. Identification of lithofacies, facies associations and architectural elements allow the understanding of the system vertically (overall waning or waxing), and laterally (axis to margin). The results obtained to date, mostly based on mapping and logging show major differences in terms of lateral continuity of the beds, and in texture of the deposits, between the bypass-dominated Rosario Formation and the aggradation-dominated Cerro Toro Formation. The beds in the Cerro Toro Formation are laterally extensive for hundreds of meters; their thickness is up to 5 meters; clast/matrix ratio is low but variable, typically decreasing upwards through a bed; in terms of processes is clear that non-Newtonian flows were responsible for a high proportion of the channel fill. The Rosario Formation is marked by laterally discontinuous beds due to intense “cut and fill”; beds are hard to define, since the deposits consist largely of erosional remnants of tractional bedforms and bars, typically with high clast/matrix ratios; highly turbulent flows were responsible for the bedload transport. We discuss possible causes for these dramatic differences in facies and architecture, and the implications for reservoir prediction. The architecture of submarine channel fills records both erosion and deposition related to variations in gravity flow characteristics (e.g. magnitude, composition, density), combined with changes in the slope morphology induced by tectonics, channel avulsions, and aggradation (Kneller, 2003; Pirmez et al., 2000). Understanding outcrop in deep-water channelized systems is essential to define sub-seismic facies architecture, and predict reservoir quality. Based on architectural elements, this work uses logs and photo-interpretation to define main differences in depositional features and flow regimes of two coarse-grained end members deposited in similar slope settings; Cerro Toro Formation, Magallanes Foreland Basin, Southern Chile; and Rosario Formation, Peninsular Ranges Fore-arc Basin, Baja California, Mexico. Extensive mapping and logging combined with photo/image treatment and interpretation have been used to understand in greater detail the main differences in terms of processes and deposits of highly turbulent Newtonian flows (turbidity currents), non-Newtonian, potentially laminar flows (debris flows), and hybrid flows that may be transitional flows between the two. Identification of lithofacies, facies associations and architectural elements allow the understanding of the system vertically (overall waning or waxing), and laterally (axis to margin). The results obtained to date, mostly based on mapping and logging show major differences in terms of lateral continuity of the beds, and in texture of the deposits, between the bypass-dominated Rosario Formation and the aggradation-dominated Cerro Toro Formation. The beds in the Cerro Toro Formation are laterally extensive for hundreds of meters; their thickness is up to 5 meters; clast/matrix ratio is low but variable, typically decreasing upwards through a bed; in terms of processes is clear that non-Newtonian flows were responsible for a high proportion of the channel fill. The Rosario Formation is marked by laterally discontinuous beds due to intense “cut and fill”; beds are hard to define, since the deposits consist largely of erosional remnants of tractional bedforms and bars, typically with high clast/matrix ratios; highly turbulent flows were responsible for the bedload transport. We discuss possible causes for these dramatic differences in facies and architecture, and the implications for reservoir prediction. Panel_14780 Panel_14780 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Geological capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in depleted oil and gas reservoirs is one method to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing oil recovery (EOR) and extending the life of the field. Therefore CCUS coupled with EOR is considered to be an economic approach to demonstration of commercial-scale injection and storage of anthropogenic CO2. Several critical issues should be taken into account prior to injecting large volumes of CO2, such as storage capacity, project duration and long-term containment. The storage capacity of CO2 is estimated by methods used by the petroleum industry in the characterization of hydrocarbon accumulations. The Jacksonburg-Stringtown field, located in northwestern West Virginia, has produced over 22 million barrels of oil (MMBO) since 1895. The sandstone of the Late Devonian Gordon Stray is the primary reservoir. Well log analysis is used to define four reservoir subunits within a marine-dominated estuarine depositional system: barrier sand, central bay shale, tidal channels and fluvial channel subunits. A 3D geologic model was constructed with variable-quality data from 175 wells to estimate the storage capacity and optimize simulation strategies to evaluate commercially-viable geological storage and EOR. Artificial neural network (ANN) of petrophysical log data (Vsh, slope of GR, ILD, slope of ILD and DPHI) were utilized as inputs and target outputs to train neural network to characterize reservoir units. The ANN is a powerful tool to develop maps of critical reservoir parameters and focused simulation. The best regions for CCUS-EOR are located in southern regions of the field. Estimated theoretical CO2 storage is approximately 24 million metric tons. Geological capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in depleted oil and gas reservoirs is one method to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing oil recovery (EOR) and extending the life of the field. Therefore CCUS coupled with EOR is considered to be an economic approach to demonstration of commercial-scale injection and storage of anthropogenic CO₂. Several critical issues should be taken into account prior to injecting large volumes of CO₂, such as storage capacity, project duration and long-term containment. The storage capacity of CO₂ is estimated by methods used by the petroleum industry in the characterization of hydrocarbon accumulations. The Jacksonburg-Stringtown field, located in northwestern West Virginia, has produced over 22 million barrels of oil (MMBO) since 1895. The sandstone of the Late Devonian Gordon Stray is the primary reservoir. Well log analysis is used to define four reservoir subunits within a marine-dominated estuarine depositional system: barrier sand, central bay shale, tidal channels and fluvial channel subunits. A 3D geologic model was constructed with variable-quality data from 175 wells to estimate the storage capacity and optimize simulation strategies to evaluate commercially-viable geological storage and EOR. Artificial neural network (ANN) of petrophysical log data (Vsh, slope of GR, ILD, slope of ILD and DPHI) were utilized as inputs and target outputs to train neural network to characterize reservoir units. The ANN is a powerful tool to develop maps of critical reservoir parameters and focused simulation. The best regions for CCUS-EOR are located in southern regions of the field. Estimated theoretical CO₂ storage is approximately 24 million metric tons. Panel_14776 Panel_14776 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A decline in conventional hydrocarbon reserves coupled with technological advances and growing energy demand has driven a shift in exploration of energy rich Australian Basins, with a progressive focus on unconventional energy sources (e.g. Coal Seam Gas, Shale Gas and Enhanced Geothermal Systems). Understanding natural fractures is critical to assessing the prospectivity of unconventional plays, as structural permeability in the form of interconnected natural fracture networks commonly exert a prime control over fluid flow in reservoir units due to low primary permeabilities. Structural permeability in the Northern Perth, South Australian Otway, and Northern Carnarvon basins is characterised using an integrated geophysical and geological approach combining wellbore image logs, core, 3D seismic attribute analysis and detailed structural geology. Integration of these methods allows for the identification of faults and fractures over a range of scales (mm-km), providing crucial permeability information. New stress orientation data is also interpreted, allowing for stress-based predictions of fracture reactivation. The resulting fracture orientations from each basin are compiled into a map of structural permeability of the Australian continent, demonstrating orientation variations which cannot be explained through fracture formation and reactivation prediction based on known stress orientations. The importance of validating remotely sensed fractures is demonstrated in the Otway Basin; analysis of core shows open fractures are rarer than image logs indicate, due to the presence of fracture-filling siderite, an electrically conductive cement which may cause fractures to appear hydraulically conductive in image logs. Although the majority of fractures detected are favourably oriented for reactivation under in-situ stresses; fracture fills primarily control which fractures are open, demonstrating that lithological data is often essential for understanding potential structural permeability networks and the orientations at which open fractures may form. The Carnarvon Basin is shown to host distinct variations in fracture orientation; a result of the in-situ stress regime, regional tectonic development, and local structure. A detailed understanding of the structural development, from regional-scale (100s km) down to local-scale (km), is demonstrated to be important when attempting to understand natural fracture orientations, and hence, structural permeability. A decline in conventional hydrocarbon reserves coupled with technological advances and growing energy demand has driven a shift in exploration of energy rich Australian Basins, with a progressive focus on unconventional energy sources (e.g. Coal Seam Gas, Shale Gas and Enhanced Geothermal Systems). Understanding natural fractures is critical to assessing the prospectivity of unconventional plays, as structural permeability in the form of interconnected natural fracture networks commonly exert a prime control over fluid flow in reservoir units due to low primary permeabilities. Structural permeability in the Northern Perth, South Australian Otway, and Northern Carnarvon basins is characterised using an integrated geophysical and geological approach combining wellbore image logs, core, 3D seismic attribute analysis and detailed structural geology. Integration of these methods allows for the identification of faults and fractures over a range of scales (mm-km), providing crucial permeability information. New stress orientation data is also interpreted, allowing for stress-based predictions of fracture reactivation. The resulting fracture orientations from each basin are compiled into a map of structural permeability of the Australian continent, demonstrating orientation variations which cannot be explained through fracture formation and reactivation prediction based on known stress orientations. The importance of validating remotely sensed fractures is demonstrated in the Otway Basin; analysis of core shows open fractures are rarer than image logs indicate, due to the presence of fracture-filling siderite, an electrically conductive cement which may cause fractures to appear hydraulically conductive in image logs. Although the majority of fractures detected are favourably oriented for reactivation under in-situ stresses; fracture fills primarily control which fractures are open, demonstrating that lithological data is often essential for understanding potential structural permeability networks and the orientations at which open fractures may form. The Carnarvon Basin is shown to host distinct variations in fracture orientation; a result of the in-situ stress regime, regional tectonic development, and local structure. A detailed understanding of the structural development, from regional-scale (100s km) down to local-scale (km), is demonstrated to be important when attempting to understand natural fracture orientations, and hence, structural permeability. Panel_14772 Panel_14772 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Marine Shale is an important unconventional gas-shale reservoir located within the Interior Salt Basin in Louisiana and Mississippi. Recently, wells producing from the Shale have achieved initial production rates of over 1,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day. This study aims to determine the role of mineralogical variation in the development of natural fractures in different facies of the Shale by integrating mineralogical, core, and wireline log data within a study area extending west to east from Rapides Parish, Louisiana to Amite County Mississippi and north to south from Wilkinson County, Mississippi to East Feleciana County Mississippi. The software program GAMLS, a probabilistic well log clustering analysis is used to correlate well logs in over 70 wells throughout the region in order to understand heterogeneities in the Tuscaloosa Marine Shale and upscale organic porosity, mineralogical, and core data to the basin scale. Preliminary results have indicated that by utilizing the GAMLS well log clustering analysis, the formation can be divided into eight electro-lithofacies units (rock types). These lithofacies were correlated to variations in fracture density, fracture porosity, and production results throughout the study area. Core samples were taken from each of these eight lithofacies and the relative amounts of quartz, calcite, and clay minerals were correlated to fracture density. The mineralogy and fracture density of the shale is highly heterogeneous throughout the study area and as a result all eight lithofacies are not present in every well. A positive correlation was made between mineralogy, fracture density, and oil production, and mapped throughout the region. Physical characteristics of natural fractures (length and mineralization) as well their frequency are found to be related to variable lithofacies of target zones within the formation. These lithofacies were mapped throughout the region in order to better understand where alterations in the formation occur. The Cretaceous Tuscaloosa Marine Shale is an important unconventional gas-shale reservoir located within the Interior Salt Basin in Louisiana and Mississippi. Recently, wells producing from the Shale have achieved initial production rates of over 1,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day. This study aims to determine the role of mineralogical variation in the development of natural fractures in different facies of the Shale by integrating mineralogical, core, and wireline log data within a study area extending west to east from Rapides Parish, Louisiana to Amite County Mississippi and north to south from Wilkinson County, Mississippi to East Feleciana County Mississippi. The software program GAMLS, a probabilistic well log clustering analysis is used to correlate well logs in over 70 wells throughout the region in order to understand heterogeneities in the Tuscaloosa Marine Shale and upscale organic porosity, mineralogical, and core data to the basin scale. Preliminary results have indicated that by utilizing the GAMLS well log clustering analysis, the formation can be divided into eight electro-lithofacies units (rock types). These lithofacies were correlated to variations in fracture density, fracture porosity, and production results throughout the study area. Core samples were taken from each of these eight lithofacies and the relative amounts of quartz, calcite, and clay minerals were correlated to fracture density. The mineralogy and fracture density of the shale is highly heterogeneous throughout the study area and as a result all eight lithofacies are not present in every well. A positive correlation was made between mineralogy, fracture density, and oil production, and mapped throughout the region. Physical characteristics of natural fractures (length and mineralization) as well their frequency are found to be related to variable lithofacies of target zones within the formation. These lithofacies were mapped throughout the region in order to better understand where alterations in the formation occur. Panel_14770 Panel_14770 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fluid flux through fractures strongly depends on the variation in fracture aperture. In natural fractures, the size, shape, and frequency of asperities on its surfaces influence the development and retention of aperture. This geometry is referred to as the roughness. At small slip, juxtaposition of mismatched asperities causes fractures to dilate and self-prop; increasing slip eventually leads to the grinding or breaking of asperities. In applications such as Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) or massive hydraulic fracture, rising fluid pressure accompanying leak-off of fluid into the formation can cause natural fractures to slip, dilate, and self-prop. This process is capable of permanently increasing the permeability of the rock mass and thus the accessible fracture surface area, maximizing access to heat or natural porosity of the formation. In this study, core from well GEO N-2 in the hot but impermeability flank of the Newberry Volcano, OR, USA and adjacent to EGS stimulation well 55-29, are examined to quantify sources of roughness, its modification through repeated slip, and history of dilation. Individual slip and dilation events are preserved in these fractures by superposed layers of cement. During fracture nucleation when slip is small, the topography of the fracture surfaces correlates with the grain and pore sizes that provide intrinsic sources of mechanical heterogeneity likely to influence fracture propagation. As the fracture continues to grow accompanying repeated slip, linkage among formerly isolated fractures provides new topographic relief obscuring the correlation with the grain and pore size. At the largest slip, gouge production reduces asperity height and diversity. These attributes are quantified in the population of asperity heights at each stage and through the power spectrum that relates the relative contribution of different wavelength asperities to the overall roughness. This analysis suggests that the dilation potential of natural fractures is closely linked to slip relative to the length-scale of mechanical heterogeneity in the rock due to grains and pores and that dilation is maximized at slips that minimize gouge production. More localized impacts on dilation result from linkage of fractures which add roughness throughout the slip history of the fracture but generate highly localized dilation that channelizes flow. Fluid flux through fractures strongly depends on the variation in fracture aperture. In natural fractures, the size, shape, and frequency of asperities on its surfaces influence the development and retention of aperture. This geometry is referred to as the roughness. At small slip, juxtaposition of mismatched asperities causes fractures to dilate and self-prop; increasing slip eventually leads to the grinding or breaking of asperities. In applications such as Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) or massive hydraulic fracture, rising fluid pressure accompanying leak-off of fluid into the formation can cause natural fractures to slip, dilate, and self-prop. This process is capable of permanently increasing the permeability of the rock mass and thus the accessible fracture surface area, maximizing access to heat or natural porosity of the formation. In this study, core from well GEO N-2 in the hot but impermeability flank of the Newberry Volcano, OR, USA and adjacent to EGS stimulation well 55-29, are examined to quantify sources of roughness, its modification through repeated slip, and history of dilation. Individual slip and dilation events are preserved in these fractures by superposed layers of cement. During fracture nucleation when slip is small, the topography of the fracture surfaces correlates with the grain and pore sizes that provide intrinsic sources of mechanical heterogeneity likely to influence fracture propagation. As the fracture continues to grow accompanying repeated slip, linkage among formerly isolated fractures provides new topographic relief obscuring the correlation with the grain and pore size. At the largest slip, gouge production reduces asperity height and diversity. These attributes are quantified in the population of asperity heights at each stage and through the power spectrum that relates the relative contribution of different wavelength asperities to the overall roughness. This analysis suggests that the dilation potential of natural fractures is closely linked to slip relative to the length-scale of mechanical heterogeneity in the rock due to grains and pores and that dilation is maximized at slips that minimize gouge production. More localized impacts on dilation result from linkage of fractures which add roughness throughout the slip history of the fracture but generate highly localized dilation that channelizes flow. Panel_14769 Panel_14769 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A 250-km-long segment of the Southern Caribbean Deformed Belt (SCDB) offshore Northern Colombia, in waters 2 to 4 km deep, is imaged on 18 high quality 2D seismic reflection profiles (2,200 line km) provided by Spectrum Geophysical. The seismic data tie DSDP site 153, providing age control on the Cretaceous to recent sediments that make up the SCDB. The SCDB is an accretionary prism, formed by active oblique subduction of the Caribbean plate beneath South America, with partitioned right-lateral strike slip motion on more landward fault systems. The Tayrona Basin is a 130-km-long by 50-km-wide forearc basin with its seaward margin formed by the uplifted accretionary prism of the SCDB and its landward margin formed by domed igneous and metamorphic rocks of the now extinct Great Arc of the Caribbean. The Tayrona Basin contains up to 5 km of Cretaceous to recent sediments. We identify several large and prospective structures (>200 km2) within the SCDB and Tayrona basin that have structurally conformable amplitude anomalies that presently remain undrilled. These structures include thrusted anticlines with the SCDB prism and turtle structures related to shale withdrawal within the Tayrona Basin. The long axes of these anticlines trend Northeast/Southwest in water depths ranging from 2700 to 3900 m, with depths below mudline from 1000 to 2200 m. We present 2D basin models for the burial and maturation of deep, oil-prone, late Cretaceous age source rocks as well as organic-rich, gas-prone sediments from Mio-Pliocene deposition. We propose numerous faults throughout the area as hydrocarbon migration routes from underlying Cretaceous source rocks and image major thrust faults breaching the seafloor with associated mud volcanoes. We suggest reservoir intervals include distal deep-water Mio-Pliocene turbidites and associated basin floor fans from the Magdalena River slope and submarine fan, or, in the case of the Tayrona Basin, coarser-grained sediments from smaller rivers draining the Santa Marta Massif. We propose that hemi-pelagic marine shale, imaged as widespread, contiguous, and low-amplitude layers act as seals. The simplest and largest structural closures exist within the frontal thrusts of the SCDB prism at depths of 4800 to 6000 mbsl, are associated with extensive bright spots, and may harbor large (>5 Tcf), commercially viable hydrocarbon accumulations. A 250-km-long segment of the Southern Caribbean Deformed Belt (SCDB) offshore Northern Colombia, in waters 2 to 4 km deep, is imaged on 18 high quality 2D seismic reflection profiles (2,200 line km) provided by Spectrum Geophysical. The seismic data tie DSDP site 153, providing age control on the Cretaceous to recent sediments that make up the SCDB. The SCDB is an accretionary prism, formed by active oblique subduction of the Caribbean plate beneath South America, with partitioned right-lateral strike slip motion on more landward fault systems. The Tayrona Basin is a 130-km-long by 50-km-wide forearc basin with its seaward margin formed by the uplifted accretionary prism of the SCDB and its landward margin formed by domed igneous and metamorphic rocks of the now extinct Great Arc of the Caribbean. The Tayrona Basin contains up to 5 km of Cretaceous to recent sediments. We identify several large and prospective structures (>200 km²) within the SCDB and Tayrona basin that have structurally conformable amplitude anomalies that presently remain undrilled. These structures include thrusted anticlines with the SCDB prism and turtle structures related to shale withdrawal within the Tayrona Basin. The long axes of these anticlines trend Northeast/Southwest in water depths ranging from 2700 to 3900 m, with depths below mudline from 1000 to 2200 m. We present 2D basin models for the burial and maturation of deep, oil-prone, late Cretaceous age source rocks as well as organic-rich, gas-prone sediments from Mio-Pliocene deposition. We propose numerous faults throughout the area as hydrocarbon migration routes from underlying Cretaceous source rocks and image major thrust faults breaching the seafloor with associated mud volcanoes. We suggest reservoir intervals include distal deep-water Mio-Pliocene turbidites and associated basin floor fans from the Magdalena River slope and submarine fan, or, in the case of the Tayrona Basin, coarser-grained sediments from smaller rivers draining the Santa Marta Massif. We propose that hemi-pelagic marine shale, imaged as widespread, contiguous, and low-amplitude layers act as seals. The simplest and largest structural closures exist within the frontal thrusts of the SCDB prism at depths of 4800 to 6000 mbsl, are associated with extensive bright spots, and may harbor large (>5 Tcf), commercially viable hydrocarbon accumulations. Panel_14773 Panel_14773 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The geochemical characterization of unconventional reservoir lithologies remains critical to predict well performance, the mechanical properties of reservoir rocks, and or other production properties. Micro-X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, a relatively new analytical technique, constitutes a valuable analytical method for characterization of shales and natural fracture systems (in thin section or drill core slabs) through the generation of elemental maps. Currently, portable XRF units are widely used throughout the petroleum industry for geochemical analysis of well cuttings. However, unlike portable units, micro-XRF analysis allows for the generation of high-resolution (a 50-100 micron spot size) elemental maps of thin sections and polished rock samples, which can be assessed visually to resolve textural and chemical features (ranging from 0.0001 to 1 meters in size). Micro-XRF maps are quicker and cheaper to generate than maps generated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The resolution afforded by micro-XRF elemental maps makes this technique well suited for the characterization of shales and mudstones because rocks of this type show micron-scale chemical and textural variability. Elemental maps were collected on a laminated siltstone and sandstone from the Mowry Shale (Bighorn Basin, Wyoming). The sample contains a complex, extensional, natural fracture in filled with calcite. The distribution and concentration of Ca, K, Si, Fe, Al, S, Mn, and Ti are presented as individual maps, where the variability in color intensity on each map indicates the concentration of that element. An element map of Ca show the matrix if generally Ca-poor, and therefore deficient of Ca cements. A vertical fracture cemented by calcite contains variable Mn and low Fe content. Invasion of Ca-fluids into the host lithology during fracture infill is minimal, but can be observed in laminae of higher permeability. Maps of Ca and S clearly identify regions where gypsum filled secondary fractures. Results of this study suggest elemental maps created using Micro-XRF allow for the visual integration of textural and chemical data, and constitutes a promising new method to characterize shales and natural fracture systems. Furthermore, the distribution of elements within a section can be used to infer the mineralogy, highlight geochemical heterogeneities, and enrich petrographic descriptions. The geochemical characterization of unconventional reservoir lithologies remains critical to predict well performance, the mechanical properties of reservoir rocks, and or other production properties. Micro-X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, a relatively new analytical technique, constitutes a valuable analytical method for characterization of shales and natural fracture systems (in thin section or drill core slabs) through the generation of elemental maps. Currently, portable XRF units are widely used throughout the petroleum industry for geochemical analysis of well cuttings. However, unlike portable units, micro-XRF analysis allows for the generation of high-resolution (a 50-100 micron spot size) elemental maps of thin sections and polished rock samples, which can be assessed visually to resolve textural and chemical features (ranging from 0.0001 to 1 meters in size). Micro-XRF maps are quicker and cheaper to generate than maps generated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The resolution afforded by micro-XRF elemental maps makes this technique well suited for the characterization of shales and mudstones because rocks of this type show micron-scale chemical and textural variability. Elemental maps were collected on a laminated siltstone and sandstone from the Mowry Shale (Bighorn Basin, Wyoming). The sample contains a complex, extensional, natural fracture in filled with calcite. The distribution and concentration of Ca, K, Si, Fe, Al, S, Mn, and Ti are presented as individual maps, where the variability in color intensity on each map indicates the concentration of that element. An element map of Ca show the matrix if generally Ca-poor, and therefore deficient of Ca cements. A vertical fracture cemented by calcite contains variable Mn and low Fe content. Invasion of Ca-fluids into the host lithology during fracture infill is minimal, but can be observed in laminae of higher permeability. Maps of Ca and S clearly identify regions where gypsum filled secondary fractures. Results of this study suggest elemental maps created using Micro-XRF allow for the visual integration of textural and chemical data, and constitutes a promising new method to characterize shales and natural fracture systems. Furthermore, the distribution of elements within a section can be used to infer the mineralogy, highlight geochemical heterogeneities, and enrich petrographic descriptions. Panel_14767 Panel_14767 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Deepwater channel sands are common targets for offshore hydrocarbon exploration. High net-to-gross systems are desirable as reservoirs but difficult to map in conventional seismic due to the lack of differentiation of their sandy lithologies from their often-silty shales. This study uses ground penetrating radar (GPR) to image outcrops and near-outcrop subcrops of the Jackfork Formation in Pulaski County, Arkansas, a middle Pennsylvanian deepwater slope and basinfloor depositional system along the margins of an oblique foreland basin in front of the encroaching Ouachita accretionary prism. In this study, GPR data are collected for the top 3-5 meters (m) of subcrops of deepwater features of the Jackfork system using a 200 megahertz (MHz) antenna. The data are processed and corrected for variations in surface topography. Where available, data are cross-checked against adjacent outcrops. At several data collection areas, GPR lines were taken in grids that range up to one square kilometer in aerial extent to visualize the internal architecture of the deposits in 3D. These GPR images capture a variety of channel architectural elements in outcrop and the adjacent subsurface including crevasse splays, sheets, and debris material. Channels extending up to approximately 50 meters wide and 5 meters deep are captured in two dimensions as well as lateral accretion beds within asymmetric channels that are a few meters deep and hundreds of meters wide. GPR data taken in grids show the spatial continuity of crevasse deposits 3-5 meters thick. With the collected data, this work aims to use associated outcrops and GPR data qualities to identify mud-rich lenses within the high net-to-gross system to provide an example of the two- and three-dimensionality of baffling facies within the channel. With the sub-meter resolution of the GPR data, this should inform fluid flow property variability within channels at a higher resolution than conventional seismic and, where grids were taken, in added dimensionality to outcrop studies. From the analysis, this work provides valuable insight into the nature of high net-to-gross deepwater channel deposits and can assist in identifying potential baffles and barriers to flow prior to full-scale, deepwater subsurface developments in similar deposits around the world. Deepwater channel sands are common targets for offshore hydrocarbon exploration. High net-to-gross systems are desirable as reservoirs but difficult to map in conventional seismic due to the lack of differentiation of their sandy lithologies from their often-silty shales. This study uses ground penetrating radar (GPR) to image outcrops and near-outcrop subcrops of the Jackfork Formation in Pulaski County, Arkansas, a middle Pennsylvanian deepwater slope and basinfloor depositional system along the margins of an oblique foreland basin in front of the encroaching Ouachita accretionary prism. In this study, GPR data are collected for the top 3-5 meters (m) of subcrops of deepwater features of the Jackfork system using a 200 megahertz (MHz) antenna. The data are processed and corrected for variations in surface topography. Where available, data are cross-checked against adjacent outcrops. At several data collection areas, GPR lines were taken in grids that range up to one square kilometer in aerial extent to visualize the internal architecture of the deposits in 3D. These GPR images capture a variety of channel architectural elements in outcrop and the adjacent subsurface including crevasse splays, sheets, and debris material. Channels extending up to approximately 50 meters wide and 5 meters deep are captured in two dimensions as well as lateral accretion beds within asymmetric channels that are a few meters deep and hundreds of meters wide. GPR data taken in grids show the spatial continuity of crevasse deposits 3-5 meters thick. With the collected data, this work aims to use associated outcrops and GPR data qualities to identify mud-rich lenses within the high net-to-gross system to provide an example of the two- and three-dimensionality of baffling facies within the channel. With the sub-meter resolution of the GPR data, this should inform fluid flow property variability within channels at a higher resolution than conventional seismic and, where grids were taken, in added dimensionality to outcrop studies. From the analysis, this work provides valuable insight into the nature of high net-to-gross deepwater channel deposits and can assist in identifying potential baffles and barriers to flow prior to full-scale, deepwater subsurface developments in similar deposits around the world. Panel_14768 Panel_14768 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Although fracture development along the fault zone is one of the effective ways of reservoir improvement and prior studies have confirmed fractures associated with faulting, studies on the understanding of the characteristics of fractures and kinematic mechanisms under the control of strike-slip faulting are few. Based on new three-dimensional high-resolution reflection seismic data, cores, slices, logs, and fluid inclusion, the tectonic fractures which are dominant in Tazhong Uplift, are mostly in the NE orientation and have a high fracture abundance near the NE trending strike-slip faults which have not been paid enough attention. The fractures formed in three tectonic events, coincident with the timing of NE-trending strike-slip faulting, the end of the Silurian, the end of the Permian, and the Tertiary respectively. Vertically, image logs show the smaller the distance to strike-slip faults, the greater the depth of fracture development. Areally, along the trend of the strike-slip faults, there is an inverse relationship between the fracture frequency and the distance from the NE trending strike-slip faults. The fracture frequency decreased sharply within 2.5 kilometres from the NE trending strike-slip faults, but further decreased slightly beyond 2.5 kilometres. Along the strike of the strike-slip faults, there could be subsection control on fracture development. Fractures in northern and southern sections are more developed than those in the middle section. In the northern section, the fractures on the western side of the NE trending strike-slip fault are more developed than those on the eastern side, while the opposite is the case in the southern section. We proposed a geometric model in which local left-lateral horizontal displacements and clockwise rotations of a local set of faults initially trending NS. The clockwise rotation resulted in gaps and overlaps, showing the high fracture abundance of northeast and southwest parts of fault blocks which could be the favourite targets. Although fracture development along the fault zone is one of the effective ways of reservoir improvement and prior studies have confirmed fractures associated with faulting, studies on the understanding of the characteristics of fractures and kinematic mechanisms under the control of strike-slip faulting are few. Based on new three-dimensional high-resolution reflection seismic data, cores, slices, logs, and fluid inclusion, the tectonic fractures which are dominant in Tazhong Uplift, are mostly in the NE orientation and have a high fracture abundance near the NE trending strike-slip faults which have not been paid enough attention. The fractures formed in three tectonic events, coincident with the timing of NE-trending strike-slip faulting, the end of the Silurian, the end of the Permian, and the Tertiary respectively. Vertically, image logs show the smaller the distance to strike-slip faults, the greater the depth of fracture development. Areally, along the trend of the strike-slip faults, there is an inverse relationship between the fracture frequency and the distance from the NE trending strike-slip faults. The fracture frequency decreased sharply within 2.5 kilometres from the NE trending strike-slip faults, but further decreased slightly beyond 2.5 kilometres. Along the strike of the strike-slip faults, there could be subsection control on fracture development. Fractures in northern and southern sections are more developed than those in the middle section. In the northern section, the fractures on the western side of the NE trending strike-slip fault are more developed than those on the eastern side, while the opposite is the case in the southern section. We proposed a geometric model in which local left-lateral horizontal displacements and clockwise rotations of a local set of faults initially trending NS. The clockwise rotation resulted in gaps and overlaps, showing the high fracture abundance of northeast and southwest parts of fault blocks which could be the favourite targets. Panel_14798 Panel_14798 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Lithofacies classification, assigning a rock type to specific rock samples on the basis of petrography or measured physical properties, is fundamental to subsurface investigations. Clastic and carbonate lithofacies have been studied extensively for depositional and diagenetic environment studies. However, research in black shale lithofacies is relatively rare, most being based on either single well study or descriptive analysis. To have broad applications, shale lithofacies should be meaningful, mappable and predictable at core, well and regional scales, in terms of maturity, mineral composition and Total Organic Carbon (TOC). The utility of different petrophysical approaches to shale lithofacies classification and prediction are demonstrated with examples from the prolific Bakken and Marcellus shale oil and/or gas resources. Core data (XRD, TOC), basic and advanced logs (such as Pulsed Neutron Spectroscopy, Dipole Sonic and Spectral Gamma) are used to investigate the petrophysical and geomechanical characteristics of shale. Core parameters calibrated with advanced logs as well as a series of multi-mineral and crossplot solutions were used to define six different shale lithofacies units. Facies pattern recognition and rock typing from basic logs (such as gamma, resistivity, porosity and photo-electric) used techniques such as Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Machine and Self-Organizing Map trained on a foundation of core data and advanced logs. After classification and prediction of shale lithofacies in all wells, including uncored wells and wells without advanced logs geostatistical approaches such as Sequential Indicator Simulation were applied to generate 3D static geocellular models for each play. The stochastic facies models were used for detailed geological interpretation of each shale lithofacies and compared with production data for integrated reservoir characterization. The study shows that mineralogy (especially, presence of biogenic silica), kerogen type and thickness of different shale units contribute to hydrocarbon production for both plays. Lithofacies classification, assigning a rock type to specific rock samples on the basis of petrography or measured physical properties, is fundamental to subsurface investigations. Clastic and carbonate lithofacies have been studied extensively for depositional and diagenetic environment studies. However, research in black shale lithofacies is relatively rare, most being based on either single well study or descriptive analysis. To have broad applications, shale lithofacies should be meaningful, mappable and predictable at core, well and regional scales, in terms of maturity, mineral composition and Total Organic Carbon (TOC). The utility of different petrophysical approaches to shale lithofacies classification and prediction are demonstrated with examples from the prolific Bakken and Marcellus shale oil and/or gas resources. Core data (XRD, TOC), basic and advanced logs (such as Pulsed Neutron Spectroscopy, Dipole Sonic and Spectral Gamma) are used to investigate the petrophysical and geomechanical characteristics of shale. Core parameters calibrated with advanced logs as well as a series of multi-mineral and crossplot solutions were used to define six different shale lithofacies units. Facies pattern recognition and rock typing from basic logs (such as gamma, resistivity, porosity and photo-electric) used techniques such as Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Machine and Self-Organizing Map trained on a foundation of core data and advanced logs. After classification and prediction of shale lithofacies in all wells, including uncored wells and wells without advanced logs geostatistical approaches such as Sequential Indicator Simulation were applied to generate 3D static geocellular models for each play. The stochastic facies models were used for detailed geological interpretation of each shale lithofacies and compared with production data for integrated reservoir characterization. The study shows that mineralogy (especially, presence of biogenic silica), kerogen type and thickness of different shale units contribute to hydrocarbon production for both plays. Panel_14778 Panel_14778 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Early Jurassic was a time of significant changes in the Earth system and witnessed the continuing fragmentation of Pangaea, marine transgressions and widespread black shale deposition. The current understanding of the Sinemurian Stage (199-191 Ma) is limited. This study is the first attempt to integrate high-resolution biostratigraphy, chemostratigrapy and their relationships with eustatic sea level changes of the Sinemurian in North America based on two of the most complete and fossiliferous sections: the Last Creek Formation in Last Creek, Taseko Lakes map area, British Columbia and the Sunrise Formation in Five Card Draw, Gabbs Valley Range, Nevada. Ammonites provide the best resolution and are the zone fossils for the Mesozoic. The current Sinemurian zonation for North America (Taylor et al., 2001) was tested and revised based on 38 ammonite species distributing among 15 genera and 5 families identified in this study. In ascending order, the Involutum, Leslei, Carinatum and Harbledownense zones are redefined and their correlations with the primary standard zonation in northwest Europe are updated. This zonation also provides chronologic control for geochemical profiles and correlation with eustatic sea level changes. Stable carbon and osmium isotopes were utilized in this study. The carbon isotope excursion (CIE) discovered in Last Creek (Porter et al., 2014) corresponds with a coeval CIE reported from England (Jenkyns and Weedon, 2013), which may suggest a global increase in primary productivity. The values of radiogenic Osmium suggest a restricted environment with significant continental influence at Five Card Draw versus an open ocean environment at Last Creek during the Sinemurian (Porter et al., 2014). The transgressive and regressive events in the study areas are calibrated with the revised Sinemurian zonation, and are compared with eustatic sea level changes, ammonite biodiversity and faunal turnovers. The Early Sinemurian transgression proposed by Hallam (1981, 1988) is well represented in both the Last Creek and Five Card Draw, and co-occurs with ammonite biodiversity maxima and a possible global CIE. The mid-Late Sinemurian regression and Late Sinemurian transgression are represented by lithological and paleobathymetric changes in Five Card Draw. The contrast in ammonite paleobiodiversity and faunal turnover also suggests significant differences in depositional environments of the study areas. The Early Jurassic was a time of significant changes in the Earth system and witnessed the continuing fragmentation of Pangaea, marine transgressions and widespread black shale deposition. The current understanding of the Sinemurian Stage (199-191 Ma) is limited. This study is the first attempt to integrate high-resolution biostratigraphy, chemostratigrapy and their relationships with eustatic sea level changes of the Sinemurian in North America based on two of the most complete and fossiliferous sections: the Last Creek Formation in Last Creek, Taseko Lakes map area, British Columbia and the Sunrise Formation in Five Card Draw, Gabbs Valley Range, Nevada. Ammonites provide the best resolution and are the zone fossils for the Mesozoic. The current Sinemurian zonation for North America (Taylor et al., 2001) was tested and revised based on 38 ammonite species distributing among 15 genera and 5 families identified in this study. In ascending order, the Involutum, Leslei, Carinatum and Harbledownense zones are redefined and their correlations with the primary standard zonation in northwest Europe are updated. This zonation also provides chronologic control for geochemical profiles and correlation with eustatic sea level changes. Stable carbon and osmium isotopes were utilized in this study. The carbon isotope excursion (CIE) discovered in Last Creek (Porter et al., 2014) corresponds with a coeval CIE reported from England (Jenkyns and Weedon, 2013), which may suggest a global increase in primary productivity. The values of radiogenic Osmium suggest a restricted environment with significant continental influence at Five Card Draw versus an open ocean environment at Last Creek during the Sinemurian (Porter et al., 2014). The transgressive and regressive events in the study areas are calibrated with the revised Sinemurian zonation, and are compared with eustatic sea level changes, ammonite biodiversity and faunal turnovers. The Early Sinemurian transgression proposed by Hallam (1981, 1988) is well represented in both the Last Creek and Five Card Draw, and co-occurs with ammonite biodiversity maxima and a possible global CIE. The mid-Late Sinemurian regression and Late Sinemurian transgression are represented by lithological and paleobathymetric changes in Five Card Draw. The contrast in ammonite paleobiodiversity and faunal turnover also suggests significant differences in depositional environments of the study areas. Panel_14779 Panel_14779 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Tensleep Formation of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming consists mainly of alternating eolian sandstones and marine dolomites and shales. The low-permeability marine intervals act as baffles to vertical flow between producing eolian reservoirs in the basin. While deformation structures have been described and interpreted in the eolian sandstones, the perceived lack of such features from marine facies leads to the erroneous conclusion that they remained unaffected. We report here the presence of discordant, tabular sedimentary intrusions in the marine intervals found at three localities within a 30 km radius. Orientations were measured, and several elements of this system were sampled for petrography. Two types of discordant, vertical, and tabular bodies are found in the marine intervals. The first and most abundant type consists of vertical, tabular bodies of dolomicrite. In most cases, their bases are connected to horizontal beds of dolomite, and drag indicators in the host beds point upward. Body widths range from 10 to 40 cm, and heights up to 150 cm. The second type also consists of vertical, more or less tabular bodies, but these are filled by fine-grained quartz sandstone containing sparse clasts of the host shale. Ptygmatically folded bodies extend downward from overlying sandstone bodies, in which soft-sediment deformation structures are common. We interpret the second type to be the result of a downward injection of fluidized sand from overlying sandstone bodies. While other examples of dolomitic dikes are extremely rare in the literature, we hypothesize that the first type of tabular bodies is caused by a remobilization of the initial carbonate mud along fracture planes. These features can be explained by hydraulic fracturing of the less permeable units, possibly associated with seismic activity. Within the study region, the presence of active faults during the Pennsylvanian have previously been proposed to account for changes in thicknesses and facies. The locations of these proposed faults would explain the spatial distribution of the dikes described here. These vertical features then provided weak points in baffle lithologies, and fractures are commonly observed in the host and sandstone bodies around these dikes. These previously undescribed features provide insights into the lateral continuity of baffles and barriers to flow in mixed eolian/marine series, and the structural context during the deposition of the Tensleep Formation. The Tensleep Formation of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming consists mainly of alternating eolian sandstones and marine dolomites and shales. The low-permeability marine intervals act as baffles to vertical flow between producing eolian reservoirs in the basin. While deformation structures have been described and interpreted in the eolian sandstones, the perceived lack of such features from marine facies leads to the erroneous conclusion that they remained unaffected. We report here the presence of discordant, tabular sedimentary intrusions in the marine intervals found at three localities within a 30 km radius. Orientations were measured, and several elements of this system were sampled for petrography. Two types of discordant, vertical, and tabular bodies are found in the marine intervals. The first and most abundant type consists of vertical, tabular bodies of dolomicrite. In most cases, their bases are connected to horizontal beds of dolomite, and drag indicators in the host beds point upward. Body widths range from 10 to 40 cm, and heights up to 150 cm. The second type also consists of vertical, more or less tabular bodies, but these are filled by fine-grained quartz sandstone containing sparse clasts of the host shale. Ptygmatically folded bodies extend downward from overlying sandstone bodies, in which soft-sediment deformation structures are common. We interpret the second type to be the result of a downward injection of fluidized sand from overlying sandstone bodies. While other examples of dolomitic dikes are extremely rare in the literature, we hypothesize that the first type of tabular bodies is caused by a remobilization of the initial carbonate mud along fracture planes. These features can be explained by hydraulic fracturing of the less permeable units, possibly associated with seismic activity. Within the study region, the presence of active faults during the Pennsylvanian have previously been proposed to account for changes in thicknesses and facies. The locations of these proposed faults would explain the spatial distribution of the dikes described here. These vertical features then provided weak points in baffle lithologies, and fractures are commonly observed in the host and sandstone bodies around these dikes. These previously undescribed features provide insights into the lateral continuity of baffles and barriers to flow in mixed eolian/marine series, and the structural context during the deposition of the Tensleep Formation. Panel_14781 Panel_14781 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Natural fractures provide preferential pathways for fluids in otherwise low porosity hydrocarbon reservoirs. These fractures are usually lined or filled with mineral cements, formed from the crystallization of minerals in the fracture pores. The presence of mineral cements can adversely affect the quality of the reservoir. Cementation along the fracture reduces hydraulic fracture aperture and fracture porosity and results in more tortuous flow paths. The presence of cements causes a decrease in the absolute permeability of the fluids; however, the influence of cements on the relative permeability of fluids is not explicit. We study the influence of partial cementation and resulting roughness on flow in the naturally fractured Niobrara and Monterey Formations. We compare the variation of permeability and relative permeability in partially cemented fractures sampled from a Niobrara outcrop and core. We also compare permeability and tortuosity variation in sampled outcrop fractures from the Niobrara and Monterey Formations. Fracture geometries were acquired from x-ray microtomography (XMT) scans. The permeability and tortuosity of the fracture (pore) space were determined from simulations of fluid flow through these geometries with impermeable fracture walls. A combination of the level-set-method-based progressive-quasistatic (LSMPQS) algorithm and lattice Boltzmann simulation were used to characterize the capillary dominated properties and the relative permeability of the naturally cemented fractures from the studied Formations. The influence of digitally increased cementation on the fracture permeability and tortuosity of the pore space were also investigated. The tortuosity and capillary pressure of the pore space both increase with increasing digital cement thickness. While this behavior is qualitatively similar to the effect of pore cementation on fluid flow through the matrix of sandstones, we see a more abrupt behavior in the partially cemented carbonate Formations studied in this work. Relative permeability of flow within the fracture is not only a function of water saturation but also of the degree of fracture cementation and fracture cement geometry which are in part controlled by depth and fracture cement mineral composition among other reservoir-specific parameters. Natural fractures provide preferential pathways for fluids in otherwise low porosity hydrocarbon reservoirs. These fractures are usually lined or filled with mineral cements, formed from the crystallization of minerals in the fracture pores. The presence of mineral cements can adversely affect the quality of the reservoir. Cementation along the fracture reduces hydraulic fracture aperture and fracture porosity and results in more tortuous flow paths. The presence of cements causes a decrease in the absolute permeability of the fluids; however, the influence of cements on the relative permeability of fluids is not explicit. We study the influence of partial cementation and resulting roughness on flow in the naturally fractured Niobrara and Monterey Formations. We compare the variation of permeability and relative permeability in partially cemented fractures sampled from a Niobrara outcrop and core. We also compare permeability and tortuosity variation in sampled outcrop fractures from the Niobrara and Monterey Formations. Fracture geometries were acquired from x-ray microtomography (XMT) scans. The permeability and tortuosity of the fracture (pore) space were determined from simulations of fluid flow through these geometries with impermeable fracture walls. A combination of the level-set-method-based progressive-quasistatic (LSMPQS) algorithm and lattice Boltzmann simulation were used to characterize the capillary dominated properties and the relative permeability of the naturally cemented fractures from the studied Formations. The influence of digitally increased cementation on the fracture permeability and tortuosity of the pore space were also investigated. The tortuosity and capillary pressure of the pore space both increase with increasing digital cement thickness. While this behavior is qualitatively similar to the effect of pore cementation on fluid flow through the matrix of sandstones, we see a more abrupt behavior in the partially cemented carbonate Formations studied in this work. Relative permeability of flow within the fracture is not only a function of water saturation but also of the degree of fracture cementation and fracture cement geometry which are in part controlled by depth and fracture cement mineral composition among other reservoir-specific parameters. Panel_14775 Panel_14775 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14422 Panel_14422 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A common problem in the interpretation of fluvial paleoenvironments is the estimation of river scales and properties using stratigraphic features. A scaling relationship between either the wavelength or sinuosity of duneforms in plan view and features of the bars or rivers in which they appear is hypothesized to aid in the interpretation of ancient fluvial systems using rib-and-furrow measurements. Modern, high-resolution remote sensing satellite data with sub-meter scale resolution via GoogleEarth is of sufficient quality to allow individual dunes and larger bars to be resolved. The cross-flow dune-crest width and wavelengths (assumed to be equivalent to rib and furrow width) of several bars were measured for the 400 m wide single-thread Sewa River of Sierra Leone and the 4 km wide braided Orinoco River in Venezuela, as part of a previous study. We hypothesize that rib and furrow widths should broadly scale to river paleohydraulics. This initial study showed dune widths of 20 - 40 m, indicating large dunes, with little measurable difference between the two rivers. This suggest that dunes scale to individual threads rather than the entire river. Unit bars were about 200 m wide in both rivers, but these amalgamated in the Orinoco to form km-wide compound bars, absent in the Sewa. We also measured the scales of dunes and bars in ten other rivers in North America. These rivers have been chosen due to the availability of hydrographic data. Dune-crest sinuosity, cross-flow wavelength, and down-flow spacing were analysed using linear regression in order to investigate the scaling relationships between dune widths, bar wavelength, channel width, and various other hydrologic or topographic variables. These scaling relationships were also examined using over 1000 measurements of rib and furrow width taken from the top of plan-view exposed dunes and bars in fluvial and mouth bar deposits of the Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone in southern Utah, for which we have also conducted paleohydraulic evaluations. Dune rib widths in the Ferron are on the order of 1 m, estimate channel widths are about 80 m, nearly an order of magnitude smaller than the Sewa and Orinoco, and unit bar widths are on the order of 10 m. It appears that the larger rivers are composed of relatively uniform scale dunes and bars that amalgamate to form compound architectural elements as rivers become wider, and braided. The smaller rivers appear to contain smaller dunes and unit bars. A common problem in the interpretation of fluvial paleoenvironments is the estimation of river scales and properties using stratigraphic features. A scaling relationship between either the wavelength or sinuosity of duneforms in plan view and features of the bars or rivers in which they appear is hypothesized to aid in the interpretation of ancient fluvial systems using rib-and-furrow measurements. Modern, high-resolution remote sensing satellite data with sub-meter scale resolution via GoogleEarth is of sufficient quality to allow individual dunes and larger bars to be resolved. The cross-flow dune-crest width and wavelengths (assumed to be equivalent to rib and furrow width) of several bars were measured for the 400 m wide single-thread Sewa River of Sierra Leone and the 4 km wide braided Orinoco River in Venezuela, as part of a previous study. We hypothesize that rib and furrow widths should broadly scale to river paleohydraulics. This initial study showed dune widths of 20 - 40 m, indicating large dunes, with little measurable difference between the two rivers. This suggest that dunes scale to individual threads rather than the entire river. Unit bars were about 200 m wide in both rivers, but these amalgamated in the Orinoco to form km-wide compound bars, absent in the Sewa. We also measured the scales of dunes and bars in ten other rivers in North America. These rivers have been chosen due to the availability of hydrographic data. Dune-crest sinuosity, cross-flow wavelength, and down-flow spacing were analysed using linear regression in order to investigate the scaling relationships between dune widths, bar wavelength, channel width, and various other hydrologic or topographic variables. These scaling relationships were also examined using over 1000 measurements of rib and furrow width taken from the top of plan-view exposed dunes and bars in fluvial and mouth bar deposits of the Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone in southern Utah, for which we have also conducted paleohydraulic evaluations. Dune rib widths in the Ferron are on the order of 1 m, estimate channel widths are about 80 m, nearly an order of magnitude smaller than the Sewa and Orinoco, and unit bar widths are on the order of 10 m. It appears that the larger rivers are composed of relatively uniform scale dunes and bars that amalgamate to form compound architectural elements as rivers become wider, and braided. The smaller rivers appear to contain smaller dunes and unit bars. Panel_14868 Panel_14868 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Bonaire is an isolated carbonate platform in the southern Caribbean, part of the Netherland Antilles. Its development is related to subduction of the Caribbean plate creating volcanism that occurred during the Late Cretaceous. The Cretaceous volcanic rocks form the basement of the carbonate island, is comprised of basalts, dacite, and andesite. Carbonate production began in the Miocene, and continues to this day. Through the Plio-Pleistocene, Bonaire has been influenced by uplift and sea level fluctuation, so terrace morphology is recognized in the islands of Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire. Platform geology starts with Eocene clastics, Miocene carbonates and Pleistocence carbonates. The Miocene carbonates can be found on the north side of the island contacting the volcanics. Pleistocene carbonates lie above Miocene and other volcanics, and compose the majority of the island when looking at it from map view. The objective of this study was to create a facies distribution model of the Pleistocene carbonates on Bonaire, and use it as a modern analogue to the petroleum reservoirs in Southeast Asia. To create this model, many different data types were used, including cores/hand samples for descriptions, as well as Digital Elevation Models, ground-based LiDAR, and shallow-seismic. The terraces of Bonaire are formed of boundstones (from the corals Diploria sp. and Acropora sp.) and bioclastic grainstone. There is a higher concentration of boundstone on the windward (east) side of the island, and more grainstone on the leeward (west) side of the island. The eolianites that make up Seru Largu also show high-angle cross-bedding to west. This gives evidence that the wind currents today are similar to what they were during the deposition of Bonaire’s Pleistocene carbonates. The two outcrops focused in this study include Seru Grandi and Seru Largu. Seru Grandi is located on the northern coast of Bonaire. It is approximately 0.17 sq. km, 8 meters thick, and contains a bed of dolomite overlain by a boundstone-grainstone bed. The boundstone-grainstone bed thins as it moves landward, pinching out over the dolomite. Seru Largu, located in the center of Bonaire, is a mound of fine-grained, well-sorted eolianites elongated in the E-W direction. These deposits are extended of about 0.26 sq. km, with an average thickness of 17.5 m. Bonaire is an isolated carbonate platform in the southern Caribbean, part of the Netherland Antilles. Its development is related to subduction of the Caribbean plate creating volcanism that occurred during the Late Cretaceous. The Cretaceous volcanic rocks form the basement of the carbonate island, is comprised of basalts, dacite, and andesite. Carbonate production began in the Miocene, and continues to this day. Through the Plio-Pleistocene, Bonaire has been influenced by uplift and sea level fluctuation, so terrace morphology is recognized in the islands of Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire. Platform geology starts with Eocene clastics, Miocene carbonates and Pleistocence carbonates. The Miocene carbonates can be found on the north side of the island contacting the volcanics. Pleistocene carbonates lie above Miocene and other volcanics, and compose the majority of the island when looking at it from map view. The objective of this study was to create a facies distribution model of the Pleistocene carbonates on Bonaire, and use it as a modern analogue to the petroleum reservoirs in Southeast Asia. To create this model, many different data types were used, including cores/hand samples for descriptions, as well as Digital Elevation Models, ground-based LiDAR, and shallow-seismic. The terraces of Bonaire are formed of boundstones (from the corals Diploria sp. and Acropora sp.) and bioclastic grainstone. There is a higher concentration of boundstone on the windward (east) side of the island, and more grainstone on the leeward (west) side of the island. The eolianites that make up Seru Largu also show high-angle cross-bedding to west. This gives evidence that the wind currents today are similar to what they were during the deposition of Bonaire’s Pleistocene carbonates. The two outcrops focused in this study include Seru Grandi and Seru Largu. Seru Grandi is located on the northern coast of Bonaire. It is approximately 0.17 sq. km, 8 meters thick, and contains a bed of dolomite overlain by a boundstone-grainstone bed. The boundstone-grainstone bed thins as it moves landward, pinching out over the dolomite. Seru Largu, located in the center of Bonaire, is a mound of fine-grained, well-sorted eolianites elongated in the E-W direction. These deposits are extended of about 0.26 sq. km, with an average thickness of 17.5 m. Panel_14867 Panel_14867 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Mineralized natural fractures (i.e., veins) are abundantly observed to cross-cut and induce soft-sediment deformation in Middle to Upper Devonian mudstones (i.e., New Albany Shale and Ohio Shale) of the Illinois and Appalachian basins. Vein morphology and composition appear to vary laterally, are best developed in proximity to the Cincinnati Arch, and reflect a seal breach by overpressured fluids originating from underlying strata. In size, the veins range from several centimeters to more than 9 meters in length, and are mineralized with quartz, calcite and dolomite, and locally contain pockets of bitumen. They show variable morphologies, with some appearing non-deformed whereas others are folded and sheared and cause compactional deformation of the enclosing shale. Dominant fractures are oriented N70E with conjugates oriented EW, consistent with the NE trending Wabash Valley fault system and the EW trending 38th parallel lineament. Evidence suggests these fault systems may have been the conduit for mineralizing fluids from underlying strata. Bitumen inclusions have been shown to come from a deeper source, and in this study we use fluid inclusion geochemistry, Oxygen isotopes and detailed petrography to investigate the source of the hydrocarbon-bearing fluids. Petrographic analysis shows a West to East shift from calcite to quartz cement across the basin. Fluid inclusion analysis with a Linkam heating-cooling stage was used to determine temperature and salinity of mineralizing fluids. Detailed microscopy and a scanning electron microscope with Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) was used to delineate single and two-phase primary, secondary and pseudo-secondary fluid inclusion assemblages. Fluid inclusions vary in size from 3 to 60 µm, show homogenization temperatures from 89.5° C to 259.6° C, and salinities from 4.03 wt. % to 20.97 wt. % sodium chloride (NaCl). The low end of the temperature range coincides with estimated burial temperatures of the New Albany Shale, whereas the higher end overlaps with fluid inclusion temperatures of Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) mineralization. The higher salinities likewise overlap with that seen in MVT mineralization. The observed range in salinities indicates fluid mixing and/or multiple fluid sources. The current data on paragenesis, fluid inclusions, Oxygen isotopes and hydrocarbon distribution indicate a complex history of fluid migration following the New Albany Shale seal breach in the Mississippian. Mineralized natural fractures (i.e., veins) are abundantly observed to cross-cut and induce soft-sediment deformation in Middle to Upper Devonian mudstones (i.e., New Albany Shale and Ohio Shale) of the Illinois and Appalachian basins. Vein morphology and composition appear to vary laterally, are best developed in proximity to the Cincinnati Arch, and reflect a seal breach by overpressured fluids originating from underlying strata. In size, the veins range from several centimeters to more than 9 meters in length, and are mineralized with quartz, calcite and dolomite, and locally contain pockets of bitumen. They show variable morphologies, with some appearing non-deformed whereas others are folded and sheared and cause compactional deformation of the enclosing shale. Dominant fractures are oriented N70E with conjugates oriented EW, consistent with the NE trending Wabash Valley fault system and the EW trending 38th parallel lineament. Evidence suggests these fault systems may have been the conduit for mineralizing fluids from underlying strata. Bitumen inclusions have been shown to come from a deeper source, and in this study we use fluid inclusion geochemistry, Oxygen isotopes and detailed petrography to investigate the source of the hydrocarbon-bearing fluids. Petrographic analysis shows a West to East shift from calcite to quartz cement across the basin. Fluid inclusion analysis with a Linkam heating-cooling stage was used to determine temperature and salinity of mineralizing fluids. Detailed microscopy and a scanning electron microscope with Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) was used to delineate single and two-phase primary, secondary and pseudo-secondary fluid inclusion assemblages. Fluid inclusions vary in size from 3 to 60 µm, show homogenization temperatures from 89.5° C to 259.6° C, and salinities from 4.03 wt. % to 20.97 wt. % sodium chloride (NaCl). The low end of the temperature range coincides with estimated burial temperatures of the New Albany Shale, whereas the higher end overlaps with fluid inclusion temperatures of Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) mineralization. The higher salinities likewise overlap with that seen in MVT mineralization. The observed range in salinities indicates fluid mixing and/or multiple fluid sources. The current data on paragenesis, fluid inclusions, Oxygen isotopes and hydrocarbon distribution indicate a complex history of fluid migration following the New Albany Shale seal breach in the Mississippian. Panel_14876 Panel_14876 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Coniacian-Santonian Matulla Formation contains both reservoir and source rocks in the Gulf of Suez region, the most prolific oil fields in Egypt. Outcrops of the Matulla Formation at west central Sinai (eastern side of the Gulf of Suez) provide a useful analog to these subsurface reservoirs by providing insight into facies distribution and stacking patterns, as well as porosity development and occlusion. The Matulla Formation was studied in four outcrops in west central Sinai, to determine facies associations, depositional environments, facies stacking patterns, diagenetic history and constrain a high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework. The study revealed that the Matulla Formation is composed of wave and tide influenced mixed siliciclastic-carbonate rocks interbedded with some oolitic ironstone beds. Detailed facies analysis suggests deposition in coastal and shallow marine environments. Vertical and lateral facies successions revealed that the Matulla Formation is composed of three 3rd order depositional sequences made of up higher frequency 4th and 5th order sequences and cycles. Primary facies and diagenetic modification both play key roles in the reservoir potential of the Matulla Formation. Sandstones are characterized by primary intergranular porosity with minor amounts of dissolution porosity, whereas carbonates exhibit dissolution molds, vugs, and some fractures. In both cases, porosity is best developed in particular facies and during preferred sequence stratigraphic positioning. Occlusion of porosity, especially in the carbonates, through both syndepositional marine cementation and extensive meteoric cementation is also linked to facies and sequence stratigratigraphic positioning. Preliminary investigations show that the porosity of sandstones increases in sequence 1 and sequence 2 and with some exceptions, sandstones with higher porosity in these sequences are associated with highstand systems tracts and exhibit some feldspar dissolution and kaolinitization of mica. Occlusion of primary porosity in many sandstone units resulted from the extensive cementation with poikilotopic calcite cement, although some of these units have secondary dissolution porosity. The Coniacian-Santonian Matulla Formation contains both reservoir and source rocks in the Gulf of Suez region, the most prolific oil fields in Egypt. Outcrops of the Matulla Formation at west central Sinai (eastern side of the Gulf of Suez) provide a useful analog to these subsurface reservoirs by providing insight into facies distribution and stacking patterns, as well as porosity development and occlusion. The Matulla Formation was studied in four outcrops in west central Sinai, to determine facies associations, depositional environments, facies stacking patterns, diagenetic history and constrain a high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework. The study revealed that the Matulla Formation is composed of wave and tide influenced mixed siliciclastic-carbonate rocks interbedded with some oolitic ironstone beds. Detailed facies analysis suggests deposition in coastal and shallow marine environments. Vertical and lateral facies successions revealed that the Matulla Formation is composed of three 3rd order depositional sequences made of up higher frequency 4th and 5th order sequences and cycles. Primary facies and diagenetic modification both play key roles in the reservoir potential of the Matulla Formation. Sandstones are characterized by primary intergranular porosity with minor amounts of dissolution porosity, whereas carbonates exhibit dissolution molds, vugs, and some fractures. In both cases, porosity is best developed in particular facies and during preferred sequence stratigraphic positioning. Occlusion of porosity, especially in the carbonates, through both syndepositional marine cementation and extensive meteoric cementation is also linked to facies and sequence stratigratigraphic positioning. Preliminary investigations show that the porosity of sandstones increases in sequence 1 and sequence 2 and with some exceptions, sandstones with higher porosity in these sequences are associated with highstand systems tracts and exhibit some feldspar dissolution and kaolinitization of mica. Occlusion of primary porosity in many sandstone units resulted from the extensive cementation with poikilotopic calcite cement, although some of these units have secondary dissolution porosity. Panel_14880 Panel_14880 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Devonian Chattanooga Shale contains an uppermost interval where phosphate nodules are dispersed in a black shale matrix. This interval overlies another black shale unit that lacks phosphate nodules but otherwise looks very similar in outcrop. Our objective for this study was to see what sets these two shales apart and what it tells about sedimentary history. In thin section, the lower black shales (PBS) show pyrite enriched laminae and compositional banding. The upper phosphatic black shales (PhBS) are characterized by phosbioclasts, have a generally banded to homogenized texture with intermittent reworked layers, and show well defined horizons of phosphate nodules that are reworked and transported. In PhBS, up to 8000 particles of P-debris per cm2 occur in reworked beds, whereas the background black shale shows between 40-90 particles per cm2. In PBS, the shale matrix contains between 8-35 phosphatic particles per cm2. The shale matrix in PhBS contains 5.6% Inertrinite, whereas just 1% Inertrinite is found in PBS. The shale matrix in both units displaying flat REEs pattern, whereas phosbioclasts in PhBS is featured by high concentrations of REEs, with particular MREEs enriched. All the samples show negative Ce anomalies, with maximum negative Ce anomalies in Phosbioclasts. Redox-indicative elements (Co, U, Mo) are more strongly in PBS than those in PhBS. Trace elements (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni) associated with organic matter show reverse trend of enrichments. Deposited atop a sequence boundary, the PhBS unit represents a transgressive systems tract and was probably deposited in shallower water than the underlying PBS interval. The higher phosphate content in PhBS appears to be a combination of lower sedimentation rates, coupled with reworking/winnowing episodes. Strong negative Ce anomalies, high degree of homogenization and secondary marcasite formation in the PhBS suggest more effective meiofaunal sediments reprocessing, improved aeration of the water column, and intermittent downwards migration of the redox boundary. A lowering of pore water pH caused by pyrite oxidation forced dissolution of detrital biogenic phosphate, which was followed by formation of marcasite, and reprecipitation of phosphate with reincorporation of dissolved MREEs. A generally “deeper” redox boundary favored P-remineralization within the sediment matrix, and multiple repeats of this process led to the formation of larger phosphatic aggregates (nodules) in discrete horizons. The Devonian Chattanooga Shale contains an uppermost interval where phosphate nodules are dispersed in a black shale matrix. This interval overlies another black shale unit that lacks phosphate nodules but otherwise looks very similar in outcrop. Our objective for this study was to see what sets these two shales apart and what it tells about sedimentary history. In thin section, the lower black shales (PBS) show pyrite enriched laminae and compositional banding. The upper phosphatic black shales (PhBS) are characterized by phosbioclasts, have a generally banded to homogenized texture with intermittent reworked layers, and show well defined horizons of phosphate nodules that are reworked and transported. In PhBS, up to 8000 particles of P-debris per cm2 occur in reworked beds, whereas the background black shale shows between 40-90 particles per cm2. In PBS, the shale matrix contains between 8-35 phosphatic particles per cm2. The shale matrix in PhBS contains 5.6% Inertrinite, whereas just 1% Inertrinite is found in PBS. The shale matrix in both units displaying flat REEs pattern, whereas phosbioclasts in PhBS is featured by high concentrations of REEs, with particular MREEs enriched. All the samples show negative Ce anomalies, with maximum negative Ce anomalies in Phosbioclasts. Redox-indicative elements (Co, U, Mo) are more strongly in PBS than those in PhBS. Trace elements (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni) associated with organic matter show reverse trend of enrichments. Deposited atop a sequence boundary, the PhBS unit represents a transgressive systems tract and was probably deposited in shallower water than the underlying PBS interval. The higher phosphate content in PhBS appears to be a combination of lower sedimentation rates, coupled with reworking/winnowing episodes. Strong negative Ce anomalies, high degree of homogenization and secondary marcasite formation in the PhBS suggest more effective meiofaunal sediments reprocessing, improved aeration of the water column, and intermittent downwards migration of the redox boundary. A lowering of pore water pH caused by pyrite oxidation forced dissolution of detrital biogenic phosphate, which was followed by formation of marcasite, and reprecipitation of phosphate with reincorporation of dissolved MREEs. A generally “deeper” redox boundary favored P-remineralization within the sediment matrix, and multiple repeats of this process led to the formation of larger phosphatic aggregates (nodules) in discrete horizons. Panel_14881 Panel_14881 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Mesozoic Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) represent important intervals in our planet’s history, not only because of the marine extinctions associated with them, but also because of the substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that have been generated from their deposits. The Toarcian OAE (T-OAE) occurred during the Early Jurassic (~183 million years ago) and is associated with the global deposition of organic-rich facies in geographically distinct sedimentary basins. This interval is specifically characterized by enrichments in total organic carbon (TOC) (up to 25 wt% in some regions) and total sulfur, which are a result of more efficient organic carbon burial due to pervasive water column anoxia in marine settings. Carbon and sulfur isotopic perturbations (d13C and ?34S, respectively) have also been identified in the same sedimentary successions that span the T-OAE, indicating past changes in these geochemical cycles. However, there remains a debate as to how widespread Toarcian anoxia and subsequent source rock deposition were since the majority of published data are derived solely from European stratigraphic successions. We will present the highest resolution chemostratigraphic analysis of the T-OAE outside of Europe from organic-rich facies of the Fernie Formation from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). These records (from several outcrop and drill cores) show the prominent negative CIE associated with the T-OAE. At these locations, the rate of d13Corg change suggests that the onset of the negative excursion was associated with a transgressive systems tract (TST) and drowning of the local and shallower carbonate ramp system. Alternatively, this may be a reflection of very low sedimentation rates during the onset of the CIE. Regardless, this portion of the Toarcian is considered to be an interval of eustatic sea level rise. Enrichments in total sulfur are also correlated with the onset of the negative CIE, but remain high after d13Corg returns to pre-excursion values. Increased sulfur to carbon ratios (S/C) are also coupled with total sulfur enrichments and suggest anoxic conditions remained pervasive in the WCSB after the T-OAE. These results suggest that western North American Toarcian sedimentary deposits may be ideal locations for unconventional hydrocarbon exploration and correlative sedimentary successions from eastern North America may hold the potential for substantial hydrocarbon deposits. The Mesozoic Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) represent important intervals in our planet’s history, not only because of the marine extinctions associated with them, but also because of the substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that have been generated from their deposits. The Toarcian OAE (T-OAE) occurred during the Early Jurassic (~183 million years ago) and is associated with the global deposition of organic-rich facies in geographically distinct sedimentary basins. This interval is specifically characterized by enrichments in total organic carbon (TOC) (up to 25 wt% in some regions) and total sulfur, which are a result of more efficient organic carbon burial due to pervasive water column anoxia in marine settings. Carbon and sulfur isotopic perturbations (d13C and ?34S, respectively) have also been identified in the same sedimentary successions that span the T-OAE, indicating past changes in these geochemical cycles. However, there remains a debate as to how widespread Toarcian anoxia and subsequent source rock deposition were since the majority of published data are derived solely from European stratigraphic successions. We will present the highest resolution chemostratigraphic analysis of the T-OAE outside of Europe from organic-rich facies of the Fernie Formation from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). These records (from several outcrop and drill cores) show the prominent negative CIE associated with the T-OAE. At these locations, the rate of d13Corg change suggests that the onset of the negative excursion was associated with a transgressive systems tract (TST) and drowning of the local and shallower carbonate ramp system. Alternatively, this may be a reflection of very low sedimentation rates during the onset of the CIE. Regardless, this portion of the Toarcian is considered to be an interval of eustatic sea level rise. Enrichments in total sulfur are also correlated with the onset of the negative CIE, but remain high after d13Corg returns to pre-excursion values. Increased sulfur to carbon ratios (S/C) are also coupled with total sulfur enrichments and suggest anoxic conditions remained pervasive in the WCSB after the T-OAE. These results suggest that western North American Toarcian sedimentary deposits may be ideal locations for unconventional hydrocarbon exploration and correlative sedimentary successions from eastern North America may hold the potential for substantial hydrocarbon deposits. Panel_14874 Panel_14874 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The San Joaquin River, deemed the most endangered river in the United States of America, has been been greatly altered due to damming and population growth over the last century. The goal of this project is to document downstream trends in bed grain sizes of the modern river and to analyze the composition of the sediment to determine its provenance. The downstream trends will be analyzed to identify any disconnect between expected grain texture, composition, and modern flow rates. This study will distinguish whether restoring flows to pre-dam conditions will contribute to increased mobility of channel bed sediments. If the bed sediment grain size reflects a local source from the adjacent floodplain, composed of Pleistocene fluvial fan deposits influenced by high discharge during glacial outwash, then even with restoration flows, the channel bed sediments may be relatively immobile. However, if the bed sediments are mobile under modern flow conditions, then the river may be more easily restored to pre-dam conditions that favor a full salmon reintroduction. Various sites were selected at different distances from Friant Dam near Fresno, California. Sediment samples were collected across the channel at each site and were then sieved and weighed for grain size analysis. Sand and gravel-size sediments were analyzed independently to identify trends within and between the two size classes. Sediment composition was determined by applying the Gazzi-Dickinson Point-Counting Method to thin sections and loose sediment of collected samples from each site. Composition was also determined through X-Ray Diffraction. These results can contribute to our understanding of extent of the human impact on the river system as well as the factors that influence bed mobility, grain texture, and composition. Evaluating the effects of local sediment sources versus channel flow conditions will also inform how channel processes and conditions are recorded in the stratigraphic record. The San Joaquin River, deemed the most endangered river in the United States of America, has been been greatly altered due to damming and population growth over the last century. The goal of this project is to document downstream trends in bed grain sizes of the modern river and to analyze the composition of the sediment to determine its provenance. The downstream trends will be analyzed to identify any disconnect between expected grain texture, composition, and modern flow rates. This study will distinguish whether restoring flows to pre-dam conditions will contribute to increased mobility of channel bed sediments. If the bed sediment grain size reflects a local source from the adjacent floodplain, composed of Pleistocene fluvial fan deposits influenced by high discharge during glacial outwash, then even with restoration flows, the channel bed sediments may be relatively immobile. However, if the bed sediments are mobile under modern flow conditions, then the river may be more easily restored to pre-dam conditions that favor a full salmon reintroduction. Various sites were selected at different distances from Friant Dam near Fresno, California. Sediment samples were collected across the channel at each site and were then sieved and weighed for grain size analysis. Sand and gravel-size sediments were analyzed independently to identify trends within and between the two size classes. Sediment composition was determined by applying the Gazzi-Dickinson Point-Counting Method to thin sections and loose sediment of collected samples from each site. Composition was also determined through X-Ray Diffraction. These results can contribute to our understanding of extent of the human impact on the river system as well as the factors that influence bed mobility, grain texture, and composition. Evaluating the effects of local sediment sources versus channel flow conditions will also inform how channel processes and conditions are recorded in the stratigraphic record. Panel_14866 Panel_14866 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The mid-Turonian Frontier Formation forms the Vernal Delta Complex (VDC) exposed at the surface along the flanks of the Uinta Mountains in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. Current literature defines the VDC as a large shoreline bulge composed of deltaic facies that prograded into the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway (KWIS). Ryer & Lovekin (1986, in AAPG Mem. 41, 497-510) argue that the VDC area is too great to represent a single delta, but instead is a prograding shoreline generated from differential subsidence. However, a detailed stratigraphic framework for the succession has to date been lacking, limiting interpretations and correlations between the north and south Uinta Mountain flanks. In this study, we address whether the VDC represents a single delta or multiple delta forms influenced by regional tectonic processes, specifically forebulge growth. We provide detailed facies reconstructions and regional correlations using 54 outcrop sections from the north, east, and south Uinta Mountain flanks and wireline logs from > 200 drillholes in the Uinta and Green River Basins. From this database, a detailed sequence stratigraphic framework is developed to facilitate understanding of regional depositional patterns. Data analysis shows two sediment dispersal trends. Exposures along the S and E Uinta MOuntain flanks contain distal delta front facies with SSE-oriented paleocurrent indicators. In this area, these facies overlie a Mowry Shale unconformity produced from a N-S elongate topographic high generated by forebulge flexure. The similarities between N-S paleocurrent and topographic trends suggest sediment dispersal influenced by an active forebulge. In thin, sharp-based proximal delta front (forced regressive) and coastal plain (lowstand) facies overlying the distal delta front in the Uinta and Green River Basins, ESE sediment dispersal is recorded. This indicates a sediment source separate to that responsible for the SSE trend. Forced regressive conditions were created from decreased accommodation during minimal forebulge flexure and sediment dispersal was not directly influenced by foreland basin tectonics. We interpret the VDC as the product of two deltas with trends controlled by the tectonic re-organization of sediment source and dispersal, rather than as a single prograding entity. These findings offer an alternative solution for the origin of the VDC, while providing insight on the formation of similar intervals within the KWIS stratigraphic record. The mid-Turonian Frontier Formation forms the Vernal Delta Complex (VDC) exposed at the surface along the flanks of the Uinta Mountains in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. Current literature defines the VDC as a large shoreline bulge composed of deltaic facies that prograded into the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway (KWIS). Ryer & Lovekin (1986, in AAPG Mem. 41, 497-510) argue that the VDC area is too great to represent a single delta, but instead is a prograding shoreline generated from differential subsidence. However, a detailed stratigraphic framework for the succession has to date been lacking, limiting interpretations and correlations between the north and south Uinta Mountain flanks. In this study, we address whether the VDC represents a single delta or multiple delta forms influenced by regional tectonic processes, specifically forebulge growth. We provide detailed facies reconstructions and regional correlations using 54 outcrop sections from the north, east, and south Uinta Mountain flanks and wireline logs from > 200 drillholes in the Uinta and Green River Basins. From this database, a detailed sequence stratigraphic framework is developed to facilitate understanding of regional depositional patterns. Data analysis shows two sediment dispersal trends. Exposures along the S and E Uinta MOuntain flanks contain distal delta front facies with SSE-oriented paleocurrent indicators. In this area, these facies overlie a Mowry Shale unconformity produced from a N-S elongate topographic high generated by forebulge flexure. The similarities between N-S paleocurrent and topographic trends suggest sediment dispersal influenced by an active forebulge. In thin, sharp-based proximal delta front (forced regressive) and coastal plain (lowstand) facies overlying the distal delta front in the Uinta and Green River Basins, ESE sediment dispersal is recorded. This indicates a sediment source separate to that responsible for the SSE trend. Forced regressive conditions were created from decreased accommodation during minimal forebulge flexure and sediment dispersal was not directly influenced by foreland basin tectonics. We interpret the VDC as the product of two deltas with trends controlled by the tectonic re-organization of sediment source and dispersal, rather than as a single prograding entity. These findings offer an alternative solution for the origin of the VDC, while providing insight on the formation of similar intervals within the KWIS stratigraphic record. Panel_14875 Panel_14875 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Stable isotopic paleohydrologic data have been published from mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) paleosol locales in the North American Western Interior Basin. From 40°N to 50°N paleolatitude, nearly all paleosols contain pedogenic siderite (FeCO3), indicative of terrestrial paleoenvironments with strongly positive precipitation-evaporation (P-E) balances. Local exceptions occur in a north-south trending zone on the immediately leeward side of the Sevier Orogen, where calcic paleosols containing pedogenic calcite (CaCO3), in the form of carbonate nodules, indicate terrestrial paleoenvironments with negative P-E balances; the record of an orographic rain shadow. Calcic paleosols in the Wayan and Blackleaf formations are being studied to produce carbonate d13C and d18O datasets to contrast with paleosol paleohydrology from elsewhere in the Cretaceous of North America. Stratigraphic sections from the Wayan Formation were measured and sampled from the Caribou Basin in Bonneville County, Idaho. The Wayan sections consist of 4 to 5 meter-thick intervals of stacked meter-scale mudstone paleosols, separated by meter-scale sandstone-siltstone beds. Steeply-dipping stratigraphic sections from the Blackleaf Formation were measured and sampled near Lima in Beaverhead County, Montana. In order to constrain chronostratigraphic relationships among all sampled sections in both units, 11 paleosol B-horizons with well-developed soil structure were sampled for volcanogenic zircons, and are being analyzed for U/Pb dates at the Isotope Geochemistry Laboratory at KU. In addition, intact measured sections from both units were sampled for organic stable carbon isotope profiles. The organic carbon samples are being analyzed for d13C values at KU. Carbon isotope profiles are used for correlating sections to the global Cretaceous C-isotope stratigraphy. Petrographic studies of pedogenic carbonate nodules from the Wayan & Blackleaf fms, and d13C and d18O analyses are being used to interpret stable isotope paleohydrology. Major scientific questions include: (1) Do calcites from these units produce estimates of groundwater d18O values that are similar to those from pedogenic siderites from the same North American paleolatitudes?; and (2) Will diagenetic trends from pedogenic carbonates permit quantitative evaluation of the evaporation deficit in the orographic rain shadow of the proximal Cretaceous North American foreland basin? Stable isotopic paleohydrologic data have been published from mid-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) paleosol locales in the North American Western Interior Basin. From 40°N to 50°N paleolatitude, nearly all paleosols contain pedogenic siderite (FeCO3), indicative of terrestrial paleoenvironments with strongly positive precipitation-evaporation (P-E) balances. Local exceptions occur in a north-south trending zone on the immediately leeward side of the Sevier Orogen, where calcic paleosols containing pedogenic calcite (CaCO3), in the form of carbonate nodules, indicate terrestrial paleoenvironments with negative P-E balances; the record of an orographic rain shadow. Calcic paleosols in the Wayan and Blackleaf formations are being studied to produce carbonate d13C and d18O datasets to contrast with paleosol paleohydrology from elsewhere in the Cretaceous of North America. Stratigraphic sections from the Wayan Formation were measured and sampled from the Caribou Basin in Bonneville County, Idaho. The Wayan sections consist of 4 to 5 meter-thick intervals of stacked meter-scale mudstone paleosols, separated by meter-scale sandstone-siltstone beds. Steeply-dipping stratigraphic sections from the Blackleaf Formation were measured and sampled near Lima in Beaverhead County, Montana. In order to constrain chronostratigraphic relationships among all sampled sections in both units, 11 paleosol B-horizons with well-developed soil structure were sampled for volcanogenic zircons, and are being analyzed for U/Pb dates at the Isotope Geochemistry Laboratory at KU. In addition, intact measured sections from both units were sampled for organic stable carbon isotope profiles. The organic carbon samples are being analyzed for d13C values at KU. Carbon isotope profiles are used for correlating sections to the global Cretaceous C-isotope stratigraphy. Petrographic studies of pedogenic carbonate nodules from the Wayan & Blackleaf fms, and d13C and d18O analyses are being used to interpret stable isotope paleohydrology. Major scientific questions include: (1) Do calcites from these units produce estimates of groundwater d18O values that are similar to those from pedogenic siderites from the same North American paleolatitudes?; and (2) Will diagenetic trends from pedogenic carbonates permit quantitative evaluation of the evaporation deficit in the orographic rain shadow of the proximal Cretaceous North American foreland basin? Panel_14883 Panel_14883 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Mount Hawk Formation in the Willmore Wilderness Park of west-central Alberta consisting of fossiliferous limestones was deposited in a deeper water setting, seaward of the platform margin behind which shallow water conditions prevailed. This is a unique outcrop since it hosts two well exposed, structurally undeformed, massively bedded patch reefs. They are mudmound type reefs composed dominantly of microcrystalline calcite with richly bioclastic fossils like corals and are riddled with cavities cemented by fibrous calcite which precipitated out of seawater. The reefs are flanked and overlain by fossiliferous thin- and medium-bedded limestones. The study determines the microfacies of these two mudmound reefs as they grew and attained relative high relief from the sea floor, in the context of the microfacies of the flanking and overlying strata, in order to detect in the biotic composition the bathymetric signal and its evolution and also determines the geochemical (especially stable isotopic) compositions of the calcite cements and biotic elements as a proxy for water-column productivity. Comparison can then be made to relative sea-level change recorded in the subsurface. The Mount Hawk Formation in the Willmore Wilderness Park of west-central Alberta consisting of fossiliferous limestones was deposited in a deeper water setting, seaward of the platform margin behind which shallow water conditions prevailed. This is a unique outcrop since it hosts two well exposed, structurally undeformed, massively bedded patch reefs. They are mudmound type reefs composed dominantly of microcrystalline calcite with richly bioclastic fossils like corals and are riddled with cavities cemented by fibrous calcite which precipitated out of seawater. The reefs are flanked and overlain by fossiliferous thin- and medium-bedded limestones. The study determines the microfacies of these two mudmound reefs as they grew and attained relative high relief from the sea floor, in the context of the microfacies of the flanking and overlying strata, in order to detect in the biotic composition the bathymetric signal and its evolution and also determines the geochemical (especially stable isotopic) compositions of the calcite cements and biotic elements as a proxy for water-column productivity. Comparison can then be made to relative sea-level change recorded in the subsurface. Panel_14878 Panel_14878 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Mass wasting processes create depositional relief that acts as localised accommodation, influencing dispersal patterns and deposit heterogeneity of subsequent sediment gravity flows. The Aptian deep-water Britannia Sandstone Formation, North Sea, provides an opportunity to study a succession of MTDs and turbiditic sandstones in a densely drilled area around the Britannia platform. The work is based on integration of well-data from 47 wells from the 35 km2 Platform Area of the Britannia Field and detailed sedimentary analyses of 3000 ft (900m) of high quality core from 13 of those wells. This dataset provides a unique subsurface example of the influence that different scales of MTD depositional relief may have on later turbidite deposition. Four mass transport events originated from a structural high located to the north of the study area. In the study area their deposits overly failure surfaces, leaving localised accommodation on their upper surfaces, that was filled by turbiditic sandstone deposits. The MTDs comprise a homogenous, well-mixed siltstone and mudstone matrix with floating sand grains, and a variety of isolated mud and sand clasts up to several meters in size. Isopach maps and well correlations within the Platform Area allow two classes of MTDs to be distinguished on the basis of maximum deposit thickness and depth of evacuated topography, which left different volumes of accommodation space for subsequent events. In the lower reservoir, MTDs 1-2 show an irregular upper topography characterised by up to 60 of metres of relief. Sharp-based, medium to fine-grained, clean, amalgamated turbidite sandstones are deposited onto this deeply evacuated topography. MTDs 3-4 within the middle reservoir represent smaller remobilisations. These deposits have a less pronounced topography, with differential relief of up to 10 metre scale, healed by muddier sandstone beds and subsidiary hybrid event beds (HEBs) that pinch out and lap onto the relatively subtle confining slopes. This depositional trend is discussed in terms of the interaction of a range of flow sizes with a range of scales of local sea floor accommodation space. The documented spatial variation in turbidite lithofacies in this MTD dominated setting illustrates how the facies distribution in MTD-accommodation fill can be quite different from those in conventional architectural and facies models. We are thankful for the data provided and for the core access by BOL (Britannia Operator Ltd.). Mass wasting processes create depositional relief that acts as localised accommodation, influencing dispersal patterns and deposit heterogeneity of subsequent sediment gravity flows. The Aptian deep-water Britannia Sandstone Formation, North Sea, provides an opportunity to study a succession of MTDs and turbiditic sandstones in a densely drilled area around the Britannia platform. The work is based on integration of well-data from 47 wells from the 35 km² Platform Area of the Britannia Field and detailed sedimentary analyses of 3000 ft (900m) of high quality core from 13 of those wells. This dataset provides a unique subsurface example of the influence that different scales of MTD depositional relief may have on later turbidite deposition. Four mass transport events originated from a structural high located to the north of the study area. In the study area their deposits overly failure surfaces, leaving localised accommodation on their upper surfaces, that was filled by turbiditic sandstone deposits. The MTDs comprise a homogenous, well-mixed siltstone and mudstone matrix with floating sand grains, and a variety of isolated mud and sand clasts up to several meters in size. Isopach maps and well correlations within the Platform Area allow two classes of MTDs to be distinguished on the basis of maximum deposit thickness and depth of evacuated topography, which left different volumes of accommodation space for subsequent events. In the lower reservoir, MTDs 1-2 show an irregular upper topography characterised by up to 60 of metres of relief. Sharp-based, medium to fine-grained, clean, amalgamated turbidite sandstones are deposited onto this deeply evacuated topography. MTDs 3-4 within the middle reservoir represent smaller remobilisations. These deposits have a less pronounced topography, with differential relief of up to 10 metre scale, healed by muddier sandstone beds and subsidiary hybrid event beds (HEBs) that pinch out and lap onto the relatively subtle confining slopes. This depositional trend is discussed in terms of the interaction of a range of flow sizes with a range of scales of local sea floor accommodation space. The documented spatial variation in turbidite lithofacies in this MTD dominated setting illustrates how the facies distribution in MTD-accommodation fill can be quite different from those in conventional architectural and facies models. We are thankful for the data provided and for the core access by BOL (Britannia Operator Ltd.). Panel_14882 Panel_14882 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

This study documents a tidal-influenced fluvial channel in a late stage valley fill of the Turonian Ferron Sandstone Member in Central Utah. Six measured sections show stacked fining upward channels filling a valley incised into older marine sediments. The lower valley shows tidally influenced deposits, while channel reconstruction shows high sinuosity meandering channel deposits in the upper part of the valley. The surface hierarchy of Miall (1985) was used to describe a four story succession of 4th order bounding surfaces separating point bars within the valley fill. Systematic paleohydraulic analysis and bedding geometries allowed for a plan view reconstruction of a meandering, high sinuosity paleochannel. Channel flow depths ranged from 2.5m to 4.0 m deep, with a paleodischarge of 8.25m3/s to 29.04m3/s. These tide influenced channel deposits represent outcrop analogs useful in the reservoir characterization of heterogeneous tide influenced reservoirs such as the McMurray Formation that host vast bitumen resources in the Athabasca Oil Sands. This study documents a tidal-influenced fluvial channel in a late stage valley fill of the Turonian Ferron Sandstone Member in Central Utah. Six measured sections show stacked fining upward channels filling a valley incised into older marine sediments. The lower valley shows tidally influenced deposits, while channel reconstruction shows high sinuosity meandering channel deposits in the upper part of the valley. The surface hierarchy of Miall (1985) was used to describe a four story succession of 4th order bounding surfaces separating point bars within the valley fill. Systematic paleohydraulic analysis and bedding geometries allowed for a plan view reconstruction of a meandering, high sinuosity paleochannel. Channel flow depths ranged from 2.5m to 4.0 m deep, with a paleodischarge of 8.25m3/s to 29.04m3/s. These tide influenced channel deposits represent outcrop analogs useful in the reservoir characterization of heterogeneous tide influenced reservoirs such as the McMurray Formation that host vast bitumen resources in the Athabasca Oil Sands. Panel_14869 Panel_14869 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Nanpanjiang Basin (NPJB) occurs within the south China plate bordered by the Yangtze Platform (YP). The goal of this study is to test whether changes in seawater redox conditions and carbonate saturation state affected variation in carbonate factory distribution and margin architecture across space and time. At Hongyan the YP margin architecture is preserved in the western part of the NPJB. A syncline exposes a continuous two-dimensional cross section through the platform to basin transition. During the Induan the YP developed a broad ramp with ~1.5 o slope. The ramp top consists of interbedded siltstone and lime mudstone with prograded ooid shoals that changes basinward to a lime mudstone-dominated, mid-ramp containing slump folds and debris flow breccia. In the Olenekian a more abrupt bank profile developed with a barrier of ooid shoals, a restricted lagoon, and peritidal interior. During the Middle Triassic, the platform developed a progressively steepening Tubiphytes microbial-cement reef-rimmed margin and upper slope that reached up to 250m relief with slope clinoforms ~35 o. Slope facies changed from debris-flow breccia to talus breccia and calciturbidites. During the late Anisian and Ladinian the platform aggraded as Tubiphytes microbial-skeletal reefs developed at the margin, debris flow breccias and caciturbidites intertongued with siliciclastic turbidites in the basin and peritidal cyclic facies developed across the flat-topped interior. Preliminary analysis of spectral gamma-ray logs and elemental geochemistry (U, Mo, V) show onset of basin anoxia in the Early Triassic and maintenance of an anoxic basin with redox fluctuations to the end of the Early Triassic and oxic conditions in the Anisian. Carbonate factory types shift from skeletal in the Upper Permian to abiotic (oolite and micrite) in the Induan and Olenekian to microbial and abiotic (Tubiphytes, microbial crusts, cement) in the Anisian and microbial, abiotic and skeletal in the Ladinian. The transition to a more abrupt bank profile with oolite barrier and restricted lagoon indicates that the change preceded the biotic “recovery” from the end-Permian extinction, suggesting that seawater redox conditions may have had a greater role on margin architecture than biotic evolution. Quantitative petrographic analysis will allow us to further test whether shifts in basin redox and carbonate saturation affected changes in diagenesis and porosity preservation/development. The Nanpanjiang Basin (NPJB) occurs within the south China plate bordered by the Yangtze Platform (YP). The goal of this study is to test whether changes in seawater redox conditions and carbonate saturation state affected variation in carbonate factory distribution and margin architecture across space and time. At Hongyan the YP margin architecture is preserved in the western part of the NPJB. A syncline exposes a continuous two-dimensional cross section through the platform to basin transition. During the Induan the YP developed a broad ramp with ~1.5 o slope. The ramp top consists of interbedded siltstone and lime mudstone with prograded ooid shoals that changes basinward to a lime mudstone-dominated, mid-ramp containing slump folds and debris flow breccia. In the Olenekian a more abrupt bank profile developed with a barrier of ooid shoals, a restricted lagoon, and peritidal interior. During the Middle Triassic, the platform developed a progressively steepening Tubiphytes microbial-cement reef-rimmed margin and upper slope that reached up to 250m relief with slope clinoforms ~35 o. Slope facies changed from debris-flow breccia to talus breccia and calciturbidites. During the late Anisian and Ladinian the platform aggraded as Tubiphytes microbial-skeletal reefs developed at the margin, debris flow breccias and caciturbidites intertongued with siliciclastic turbidites in the basin and peritidal cyclic facies developed across the flat-topped interior. Preliminary analysis of spectral gamma-ray logs and elemental geochemistry (U, Mo, V) show onset of basin anoxia in the Early Triassic and maintenance of an anoxic basin with redox fluctuations to the end of the Early Triassic and oxic conditions in the Anisian. Carbonate factory types shift from skeletal in the Upper Permian to abiotic (oolite and micrite) in the Induan and Olenekian to microbial and abiotic (Tubiphytes, microbial crusts, cement) in the Anisian and microbial, abiotic and skeletal in the Ladinian. The transition to a more abrupt bank profile with oolite barrier and restricted lagoon indicates that the change preceded the biotic “recovery” from the end-Permian extinction, suggesting that seawater redox conditions may have had a greater role on margin architecture than biotic evolution. Quantitative petrographic analysis will allow us to further test whether shifts in basin redox and carbonate saturation affected changes in diagenesis and porosity preservation/development. Panel_14879 Panel_14879 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Classification of river systems based on dimension and size of architectural elements is critical in determining the scale of ancient fluvial deposits, their role in ancient drainages, and in determining whether channels are associated with tributaries, distributaries, or trunk systems. These questions are addressed in an outcrop study of incised valleys in the Turonian Ferron Sandstone of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway. Four measured sections including lithological, ichnological, paleocurrent, and architectural data was supplemented with gigapan photomosaics of two opposing outcrop faces oriented oblique to depositional dip. The valley is compound in nature and records multiple episodes of cut and fill, with up to three nested valleys, each containing multiple channel stories. An upward progression from single thread meandering fluvial style, indicated by extensive large-scale laterally accreting point bar deposits, to more freely avulsing floodplain and fluvial deposits outside the confined valley is documented. Point bar height (measured at 3.5 m) scales to 80-90% of flow depth, suggesting bankfull flow depth ranging from 3.9 m to 4.2 m. Channel widths are on the order of 50-130 m. Lithological analysis shows grain size distributions ranging from medium lower sandstone in the lowest valley base with abundant mud rip-up clasts, passing upward into fine lower dune-scale cross-bedded sandstone. Younger valleys show upward fining successions passing from medium-grained, dune-scale cross bedded lower sandstone at the base with few mud rip-up clasts, to very fine upper sandstone and frequent floodplain shale showing reoccupation fluvial sandstone cycles. Paleodischarge would be on the order of 250 m3/s, suggesting relatively small and possibly tributary streams within the valley. These outcrops are about 20 km landward of previously studied valleys, and our results are consistent with a tributary interpretation. This study of the more proximal parts of the Ferron paleovalley show that fluvial style and scale changes regionally within this large valley system. Classification of river systems based on dimension and size of architectural elements is critical in determining the scale of ancient fluvial deposits, their role in ancient drainages, and in determining whether channels are associated with tributaries, distributaries, or trunk systems. These questions are addressed in an outcrop study of incised valleys in the Turonian Ferron Sandstone of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway. Four measured sections including lithological, ichnological, paleocurrent, and architectural data was supplemented with gigapan photomosaics of two opposing outcrop faces oriented oblique to depositional dip. The valley is compound in nature and records multiple episodes of cut and fill, with up to three nested valleys, each containing multiple channel stories. An upward progression from single thread meandering fluvial style, indicated by extensive large-scale laterally accreting point bar deposits, to more freely avulsing floodplain and fluvial deposits outside the confined valley is documented. Point bar height (measured at 3.5 m) scales to 80-90% of flow depth, suggesting bankfull flow depth ranging from 3.9 m to 4.2 m. Channel widths are on the order of 50-130 m. Lithological analysis shows grain size distributions ranging from medium lower sandstone in the lowest valley base with abundant mud rip-up clasts, passing upward into fine lower dune-scale cross-bedded sandstone. Younger valleys show upward fining successions passing from medium-grained, dune-scale cross bedded lower sandstone at the base with few mud rip-up clasts, to very fine upper sandstone and frequent floodplain shale showing reoccupation fluvial sandstone cycles. Paleodischarge would be on the order of 250 m3/s, suggesting relatively small and possibly tributary streams within the valley. These outcrops are about 20 km landward of previously studied valleys, and our results are consistent with a tributary interpretation. This study of the more proximal parts of the Ferron paleovalley show that fluvial style and scale changes regionally within this large valley system. Panel_14872 Panel_14872 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Catskill Formation consists of approximately 2 kilometers of marginal marine and alluvial strata deposited into the Appalachian basin during the Acadian Orogeny. Previous studies have interpreted the Catskill Formation as a prograding deltaic complex. Others have interpreted this system as a prograding low-gradient alluvial plain grading into muddy shoreline depositional environments. Recent observations in actively aggrading basins show fluvial deposition dominated by distributary fluvial systems (DFS). A DFS is characterized by a fan morphology, increasing channel bifurcation downstream and less channelized flow downstream. The purpose of this study is to assess the applicability of the DFS depositional model to the Catskill Formation using paleopedological analysis and to clarify Late Devonian paleoclimatic trends. Pedogenesis on modern DFS is largely controlled by variation in hydrologic regime as a function of geomorphic position. In source proximal DFS environments, flow is confined to channels and overbank environments are well-drained, as depth to the water table is greatest in these settings. Channel confinement and water table depth decrease downstream on DFS, resulting in poorly-drained, poorly-developed, hydromorphic soils forming in source-distal DFS environments. Paleosols associated with a prograding DFS will therefore be manifested in the rock record as a vertical succession from poorly-developed, hydromorphic paleosols to well-drained, well-developed paleosols. Pedofacies associated with the lower-most member of the Catskill Formation show hydromorophic features and are generally poorly developed. An increase in paleosol drainage up-section in the Catskill Formation is inferred based on a transition from hydromorphic pedofacies to calcareous and vertic pedofacies. These results are consistent with deposition of the Catskill Formation by DFS processes. Identifying DFS in the sedimentary record has implications for paleoclimatic interpretations based on paleosols. Paleosols associated with DFS show a drying trend up-section as a result of changing hydrologic conditions, which could potentially be misinterpreted as a change from prevailing humid to arid paleoclimatic conditions. Recognizing DFS in the rock record also has implications for basin reconstruction and characterizing fluvial hydrocarbon reservoirs, as the geometry and scale of lithofacies distributions associated with DFS are fundamentally different from tributary systems. The Catskill Formation consists of approximately 2 kilometers of marginal marine and alluvial strata deposited into the Appalachian basin during the Acadian Orogeny. Previous studies have interpreted the Catskill Formation as a prograding deltaic complex. Others have interpreted this system as a prograding low-gradient alluvial plain grading into muddy shoreline depositional environments. Recent observations in actively aggrading basins show fluvial deposition dominated by distributary fluvial systems (DFS). A DFS is characterized by a fan morphology, increasing channel bifurcation downstream and less channelized flow downstream. The purpose of this study is to assess the applicability of the DFS depositional model to the Catskill Formation using paleopedological analysis and to clarify Late Devonian paleoclimatic trends. Pedogenesis on modern DFS is largely controlled by variation in hydrologic regime as a function of geomorphic position. In source proximal DFS environments, flow is confined to channels and overbank environments are well-drained, as depth to the water table is greatest in these settings. Channel confinement and water table depth decrease downstream on DFS, resulting in poorly-drained, poorly-developed, hydromorphic soils forming in source-distal DFS environments. Paleosols associated with a prograding DFS will therefore be manifested in the rock record as a vertical succession from poorly-developed, hydromorphic paleosols to well-drained, well-developed paleosols. Pedofacies associated with the lower-most member of the Catskill Formation show hydromorophic features and are generally poorly developed. An increase in paleosol drainage up-section in the Catskill Formation is inferred based on a transition from hydromorphic pedofacies to calcareous and vertic pedofacies. These results are consistent with deposition of the Catskill Formation by DFS processes. Identifying DFS in the sedimentary record has implications for paleoclimatic interpretations based on paleosols. Paleosols associated with DFS show a drying trend up-section as a result of changing hydrologic conditions, which could potentially be misinterpreted as a change from prevailing humid to arid paleoclimatic conditions. Recognizing DFS in the rock record also has implications for basin reconstruction and characterizing fluvial hydrocarbon reservoirs, as the geometry and scale of lithofacies distributions associated with DFS are fundamentally different from tributary systems. Panel_14870 Panel_14870 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A 2D and 3D seismic-based structural analysis of the Ashmore Platform in NW Australia is aiming to unravel the tectonophysical processes resulting from an early-stage foreland basin deformation in the Timor Sea region. A re-evaluation of lithospheric flexural models proposed for this region (i.e. Londoño & Lorenzo 2004; Langhi et al. 2011) and a comparison against the observed fault pattern reveal various differences. The study area provides an exceptional opportunity to examine the early-stage development of the foreland basin between the colliding Australian continental margin and the Banda arc. The Timor region’s abundant normal faulting within a remotely convergent plate-margin setting has been a debated subject with numerous studies devoted to explain this issue. 2D elastic half-beam models of Londoño & Lorenzo (2004) and simple bending elastic beam models from Langhi et al. (2011) evidence that bending of the Australian lithosphere is a key mechanism responsible for the current tectonic development of the Timor Sea. This seismic-based tectonic study constrains these numerical models inferring a combination of mechanisms to explain the modern extensional faulting of the study area.This study integrates interpretations from 2D and 3D seismic-reflection data with standard wireline logs of two wells to subdivide the subsurface of the study area into five seismic units, corresponding to a Paleozoic basement, thick Mesozoic clastic and carbonate sequences and a topmost Cenozoic succession of predominantly carbonate rocks. This sedimentary succession is deformed by numerous normal faults, of which 165 were mapped in 3D, particularly focusing on the displacement of the recent to sub-recent sedimentary cover. The modern structural styles encountered in the study area resulted in the differentiation of three normal-fault sets. This seismic-based tectonic analysis ultimately ground truths theoretical models of lithospheric flexure, highlighting the importance of combining modelling studies with observational field-based constraints. A 2D and 3D seismic-based structural analysis of the Ashmore Platform in NW Australia is aiming to unravel the tectonophysical processes resulting from an early-stage foreland basin deformation in the Timor Sea region. A re-evaluation of lithospheric flexural models proposed for this region (i.e. Londoño & Lorenzo 2004; Langhi et al. 2011) and a comparison against the observed fault pattern reveal various differences. The study area provides an exceptional opportunity to examine the early-stage development of the foreland basin between the colliding Australian continental margin and the Banda arc. The Timor region’s abundant normal faulting within a remotely convergent plate-margin setting has been a debated subject with numerous studies devoted to explain this issue. 2D elastic half-beam models of Londoño & Lorenzo (2004) and simple bending elastic beam models from Langhi et al. (2011) evidence that bending of the Australian lithosphere is a key mechanism responsible for the current tectonic development of the Timor Sea. This seismic-based tectonic study constrains these numerical models inferring a combination of mechanisms to explain the modern extensional faulting of the study area.This study integrates interpretations from 2D and 3D seismic-reflection data with standard wireline logs of two wells to subdivide the subsurface of the study area into five seismic units, corresponding to a Paleozoic basement, thick Mesozoic clastic and carbonate sequences and a topmost Cenozoic succession of predominantly carbonate rocks. This sedimentary succession is deformed by numerous normal faults, of which 165 were mapped in 3D, particularly focusing on the displacement of the recent to sub-recent sedimentary cover. The modern structural styles encountered in the study area resulted in the differentiation of three normal-fault sets. This seismic-based tectonic analysis ultimately ground truths theoretical models of lithospheric flexure, highlighting the importance of combining modelling studies with observational field-based constraints. Panel_14877 Panel_14877 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Few studies on reconstructing paleohydraulic parameters of ancient rivers obtained from outcrops have been examined by plan-view characteristics (meander amplitude and sinuosity). Plan view and cliff exposures of amalgamated ancient meander belts in the Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone member, Mancos Shale Formation, Utah, allow paleohydraulic reconstruction based on both vertical and plan-view outcrop data, evaluation of numerical models of facies variability in meander belts, as well as addressing the variability of paleocurrents and facies heterogeneity in complex fluvial analog reservoirs. This project integrates 3 measured sections from cliff facies, plan-view interpretive maps made from aerial photos, with 1259 areal grain-size measurements, 800 paleocurrents (mostly rib and furrows from dunes) and 75 strike and dip measurements on exposed bar accretion surfaces. Three amalgamated channel belts are marked by scour surfaces, an increase in grain size, and abrupt changes in paleocurrent orientations. The youngest is 2.0 m in depth, 90m in width, 435m in meander amplitude, and has a sinuosity of 2.9. The middle is 3.1m in depth, 1083m in meander amplitude, and has a sinuosity of 1.2. The oldest was insufficiently exposed to document its plan view style. Grain size showed systematic fining-upwards within each channel story, coarsening towards the bend apex along the bend axis, and fining downstream within some meander scrolls. Plan-form trends were less well developed, perhaps reflecting the fact that the exposures capture variable vertical position within the belts. Paleocurrents showed systematically varying trends within belts (from NE, to SW, to E), with abrupt changes between belts. Grain size and vertical facies associations vary as a function of the style of bar migration, as well as position within a bar (upstream vs. downstream). The outcrop showed the dominance of a meandering river style overall, according to lateral amalgamation of successive point bars within the belts. Compound braid bars, built by overlapping unit bars, constitute the youngest channel deposits, probably associated with channel abandonment. Independent measurements of meander wavelength based on plan view exposures match results from empirical equations. The Ferron rivers are small to medium in scale according to calculated paleohydraulic parameters (Qw = 135~225m3/sec). Few studies on reconstructing paleohydraulic parameters of ancient rivers obtained from outcrops have been examined by plan-view characteristics (meander amplitude and sinuosity). Plan view and cliff exposures of amalgamated ancient meander belts in the Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone member, Mancos Shale Formation, Utah, allow paleohydraulic reconstruction based on both vertical and plan-view outcrop data, evaluation of numerical models of facies variability in meander belts, as well as addressing the variability of paleocurrents and facies heterogeneity in complex fluvial analog reservoirs. This project integrates 3 measured sections from cliff facies, plan-view interpretive maps made from aerial photos, with 1259 areal grain-size measurements, 800 paleocurrents (mostly rib and furrows from dunes) and 75 strike and dip measurements on exposed bar accretion surfaces. Three amalgamated channel belts are marked by scour surfaces, an increase in grain size, and abrupt changes in paleocurrent orientations. The youngest is 2.0 m in depth, 90m in width, 435m in meander amplitude, and has a sinuosity of 2.9. The middle is 3.1m in depth, 1083m in meander amplitude, and has a sinuosity of 1.2. The oldest was insufficiently exposed to document its plan view style. Grain size showed systematic fining-upwards within each channel story, coarsening towards the bend apex along the bend axis, and fining downstream within some meander scrolls. Plan-form trends were less well developed, perhaps reflecting the fact that the exposures capture variable vertical position within the belts. Paleocurrents showed systematically varying trends within belts (from NE, to SW, to E), with abrupt changes between belts. Grain size and vertical facies associations vary as a function of the style of bar migration, as well as position within a bar (upstream vs. downstream). The outcrop showed the dominance of a meandering river style overall, according to lateral amalgamation of successive point bars within the belts. Compound braid bars, built by overlapping unit bars, constitute the youngest channel deposits, probably associated with channel abandonment. Independent measurements of meander wavelength based on plan view exposures match results from empirical equations. The Ferron rivers are small to medium in scale according to calculated paleohydraulic parameters (Qw = 135~225m3/sec). Panel_14873 Panel_14873 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14391 Panel_14391 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Tidally influenced ooid shoals of the Pleistocene Miami Limestone and coeval deposits in the Bahamas were chosen to further document the record of sub-orbital sea-level oscillations within the last interglacial highstand (Marine Isotope Stage 5e or MIS 5e). Detailed sedimentological and stratigraphic investigations of cores and outcrops of the Miami Limestone are combined with a LIDAR-based digital terrain model (DTM) to relate the facies of the grainstone body to the geomorphologic structure and depositional geometries. The oolitic portion of the Miami Limestone, covering approximately 300 km2, comprises two distinct geometries: (1) a tidal bar and channel system which covers about 280 km2 and (2) a prograding barrier bar which covers 20 km2. Two main facies, mottled and cross-bedded, are identified within the oolitic portion. In several cores, characteristic features of subaerial exposure are found, such as dissolution, red staining, caliche crusts, and burrow-filling quartz. Two U/Th age dates, <155.2 ± 1.1 kyrs and 126.9 ± 0.9 kyrs, respectively, indicate that a key exposure horizon formed within MIS 5e and document a sea-level drop. It is also likely that the seaward accretion of the prograding barrier bar relative to the tidal bar and channel system is related to a sea-level oscillation. Thus, oscillating sea level during MIS 5e combined with syndepositional topography is responsible for sedimentological complexity and stratigraphic heterogeneity within the Miami Limestone. A comparison of the elevations of the shoal crests from the Miami Limestone with time-equivalent oolitic grainstone shoals in the Bahamas (Ocean Cay and New Providence Island) yields a difference of 17 m, provide an estimation of the amplitude of sea-level oscillation during MIS 5e. The implications of high-frequency sea-level oscillations during MIS 5e are twofold: 1) rapid climate changes and concomitant waxing and waning of ice sheets can occur within warm periods, and 2) sub-orbital oscillations within highstands generate additional cycles of deposition similar to the orbitally controlled depositional cycles themselves. The created stratigraphic complexity and heterogeneity have potential implications for reservoir characterization, modelling, and flow behavior of carbonate grainstone bodies in the ancient. Tidally influenced ooid shoals of the Pleistocene Miami Limestone and coeval deposits in the Bahamas were chosen to further document the record of sub-orbital sea-level oscillations within the last interglacial highstand (Marine Isotope Stage 5e or MIS 5e). Detailed sedimentological and stratigraphic investigations of cores and outcrops of the Miami Limestone are combined with a LIDAR-based digital terrain model (DTM) to relate the facies of the grainstone body to the geomorphologic structure and depositional geometries. The oolitic portion of the Miami Limestone, covering approximately 300 km², comprises two distinct geometries: (1) a tidal bar and channel system which covers about 280 km² and (2) a prograding barrier bar which covers 20 km². Two main facies, mottled and cross-bedded, are identified within the oolitic portion. In several cores, characteristic features of subaerial exposure are found, such as dissolution, red staining, caliche crusts, and burrow-filling quartz. Two U/Th age dates, <155.2 ± 1.1 kyrs and 126.9 ± 0.9 kyrs, respectively, indicate that a key exposure horizon formed within MIS 5e and document a sea-level drop. It is also likely that the seaward accretion of the prograding barrier bar relative to the tidal bar and channel system is related to a sea-level oscillation. Thus, oscillating sea level during MIS 5e combined with syndepositional topography is responsible for sedimentological complexity and stratigraphic heterogeneity within the Miami Limestone. A comparison of the elevations of the shoal crests from the Miami Limestone with time-equivalent oolitic grainstone shoals in the Bahamas (Ocean Cay and New Providence Island) yields a difference of 17 m, provide an estimation of the amplitude of sea-level oscillation during MIS 5e. The implications of high-frequency sea-level oscillations during MIS 5e are twofold: 1) rapid climate changes and concomitant waxing and waning of ice sheets can occur within warm periods, and 2) sub-orbital oscillations within highstands generate additional cycles of deposition similar to the orbitally controlled depositional cycles themselves. The created stratigraphic complexity and heterogeneity have potential implications for reservoir characterization, modelling, and flow behavior of carbonate grainstone bodies in the ancient. Panel_16253 Panel_16253 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The discovery of hydrocarbon reservoirs in pre-salt microbial accumulations, offshore Brazil and Angola, has heightened interest in microbial deposits and, in particular, analogs that can be used to better understand reservoir stratigraphy, facies, and potential heterogeneity. For the past two years, a Microbial Research Consortium, representing collaboration between Rice and Trinity Universities with funding and interaction from Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Shell, and Statoil, has focused on a series of newly accessible and spectacular outcrops in southern Mason County, Texas. Outcrops reveal a 10-20 m-thick Upper Cambrian microbial reef unit covering as much as 25 km2. In particular along a bend of the James River, the microbial reef unit crops out including extensive pavement exposures adjacent to spectacular cliffs thereby providing a unique 3-D detailed view of a microbial reef complex, covering 0.2 km2 in surface area and reaching 15 m at its thickest central part. Three successive growth phases, repeatedly observed on the outcrops of the reef complex, are: 1) an initial ‘colonization’ phase of microbialites over transgressive flat pebble conglomerates, 2) a ‘vertical aggrading/lateral expanding’ microbial phase, interacting in particular in the central part of the complex, with the accumulation of large volume of grainstones in the inter-reef areas, and 3) a well-defined ‘capping’ phase, during which the inter-reef grainstones have vanished. The juxtaposition of individual bioherms along the James River with inter-reef high energy grainstones closely resembles the environmental conditions of modern subtidal microbialites at several localities in the Exumas Islands portion of Great Bahama Bank. More than 80 cores, either 7.5 or 15 cm in diameter and up to 50 cm-long, were collected using a hand held drill along a series of transects laterally across and vertical through the different bioherm growth phases. In addition, the inter-reef vertical and lateral grainstone variations were also sampled with cores. Depositional textures produced within the different phases of the microbial growth are superbly illustrated in the cores. Detailed facies analyses from the different split cores, placed on ultra-high resolution orthophotographs, offer unique opportunities to assess spatial variations of the buildups at varying scales and can potentially provide more robust analogs to improve reservoir characterization and modeling. The discovery of hydrocarbon reservoirs in pre-salt microbial accumulations, offshore Brazil and Angola, has heightened interest in microbial deposits and, in particular, analogs that can be used to better understand reservoir stratigraphy, facies, and potential heterogeneity. For the past two years, a Microbial Research Consortium, representing collaboration between Rice and Trinity Universities with funding and interaction from Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Shell, and Statoil, has focused on a series of newly accessible and spectacular outcrops in southern Mason County, Texas. Outcrops reveal a 10-20 m-thick Upper Cambrian microbial reef unit covering as much as 25 km². In particular along a bend of the James River, the microbial reef unit crops out including extensive pavement exposures adjacent to spectacular cliffs thereby providing a unique 3-D detailed view of a microbial reef complex, covering 0.2 km² in surface area and reaching 15 m at its thickest central part. Three successive growth phases, repeatedly observed on the outcrops of the reef complex, are: 1) an initial ‘colonization’ phase of microbialites over transgressive flat pebble conglomerates, 2) a ‘vertical aggrading/lateral expanding’ microbial phase, interacting in particular in the central part of the complex, with the accumulation of large volume of grainstones in the inter-reef areas, and 3) a well-defined ‘capping’ phase, during which the inter-reef grainstones have vanished. The juxtaposition of individual bioherms along the James River with inter-reef high energy grainstones closely resembles the environmental conditions of modern subtidal microbialites at several localities in the Exumas Islands portion of Great Bahama Bank. More than 80 cores, either 7.5 or 15 cm in diameter and up to 50 cm-long, were collected using a hand held drill along a series of transects laterally across and vertical through the different bioherm growth phases. In addition, the inter-reef vertical and lateral grainstone variations were also sampled with cores. Depositional textures produced within the different phases of the microbial growth are superbly illustrated in the cores. Detailed facies analyses from the different split cores, placed on ultra-high resolution orthophotographs, offer unique opportunities to assess spatial variations of the buildups at varying scales and can potentially provide more robust analogs to improve reservoir characterization and modeling. Panel_15657 Panel_15657 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The discovery of hydrocarbon reservoirs in pre-salt microbial accumulations offshore Brazil and Angola, in addition to a significant microbial component in some of the world’s largest carbonate reservoirs in the Pri-Caspian Basin, has renewed interest in microbial deposits. Spectacular outcrops of Upper Cambrian microbial reefs in Mason County, Texas1, offer unique opportunities to assess varying scales of their spatial variation and potentially serve as subsurface analogs to improve reservoir correlation and modeling. A drone survey was conducted over these outcrops, from 40 m altitude, and ultra-high resolution orthophotographs, with a resolution of 1 cm, were processed using Agisoft 1.0. Three growth phases are observed in the microbial bioherms (10-15 m high and tens of meters in width), evolving from an initial ‘colonization’ phase, through a ‘vertical aggradation and lateral expansion’ phase, and ultimately into a ‘capping’ phase. 3D analyses of the bioherm colonization phase on a plan view outcrop in the floor of the James River offers unique opportunities in scaling their growth at three quantifiable scales: large, medium, and small. Different bioherm scales were mapped, and their length, width, orientation, and spacing were catalogued. Absolute and comparative analyses were conducted within scales and between the scales showing that the statistical analysis conducted for these bioherms could be used for the entire area and are not specific to a certain part of the outcrop. In general the shape of bioherms at all scales is elliptical with large scale ranging in length from 15 to 40 m, medium scale ranging from 1.5 m to 15 m and smallest scale ranging from 10 cm to 80 cm. Trend analyses demonstrate possible bioherm orientation and size trends. Training images (TIs) were generated using a simple rule-based, object-based method with constraints such as the geometries spacing between bioherms at different scales. Additional work could explore methods to amalgamate the bioherms in a more realistic manner, but the existing TIs are considered suitable for providing reasonable spatial heterogeneity constraint when augmented by stationary region and non-stationary trend models for multi-point-statistics (MPS) modeling. In addition, these models provide an opportunity to test the impact of these architectures on flow response. The discovery of hydrocarbon reservoirs in pre-salt microbial accumulations offshore Brazil and Angola, in addition to a significant microbial component in some of the world’s largest carbonate reservoirs in the Pri-Caspian Basin, has renewed interest in microbial deposits. Spectacular outcrops of Upper Cambrian microbial reefs in Mason County, Texas1, offer unique opportunities to assess varying scales of their spatial variation and potentially serve as subsurface analogs to improve reservoir correlation and modeling. A drone survey was conducted over these outcrops, from 40 m altitude, and ultra-high resolution orthophotographs, with a resolution of 1 cm, were processed using Agisoft 1.0. Three growth phases are observed in the microbial bioherms (10-15 m high and tens of meters in width), evolving from an initial ‘colonization’ phase, through a ‘vertical aggradation and lateral expansion’ phase, and ultimately into a ‘capping’ phase. 3D analyses of the bioherm colonization phase on a plan view outcrop in the floor of the James River offers unique opportunities in scaling their growth at three quantifiable scales: large, medium, and small. Different bioherm scales were mapped, and their length, width, orientation, and spacing were catalogued. Absolute and comparative analyses were conducted within scales and between the scales showing that the statistical analysis conducted for these bioherms could be used for the entire area and are not specific to a certain part of the outcrop. In general the shape of bioherms at all scales is elliptical with large scale ranging in length from 15 to 40 m, medium scale ranging from 1.5 m to 15 m and smallest scale ranging from 10 cm to 80 cm. Trend analyses demonstrate possible bioherm orientation and size trends. Training images (TIs) were generated using a simple rule-based, object-based method with constraints such as the geometries spacing between bioherms at different scales. Additional work could explore methods to amalgamate the bioherms in a more realistic manner, but the existing TIs are considered suitable for providing reasonable spatial heterogeneity constraint when augmented by stationary region and non-stationary trend models for multi-point-statistics (MPS) modeling. In addition, these models provide an opportunity to test the impact of these architectures on flow response. Panel_15658 Panel_15658 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Drones are changing the way geologists map in that it is now possible to acquire high-resolution photographs and elevation data of inaccessible locations. The University of Miami CSL – Center for Carbonate Research together with Camera Wings Aerial Photography conducted a field mapping survey on a portion of New Providence Island and at several localities in the Exuma Cays of the Bahamas. Camera Wings designs, builds, and operates drones, which are outfitted with the latest automated flight control systems, highest resolution digital cameras, and position data loggers to capture high-resolution oblique photographs and conduct photogrammetry. They have developed a Quad Copter configuration drone that offers unparalleled flight time and vertical take off and landing. Through the use of previously unattainable data acquired by the drone, we can now measure elevations and quantify key geomorphic features in the Bahamas field areas caused by the Holocene transgression and Pleistocene sea-level oscillations. Flight operations were conducted from the Clifton Heritage National Park on New Providence, and the deck of John G. Shedd Aquarium’s research vessel R/V Coral Reef II in the Exumas. Photos were stitched using Agisoft software and corrected with ground control points. Oblique aerial photographs were also shot and stitched to create life-like virtual 360° panoramas of key field areas. The drone imaging combined with advanced photogrammetry software allow us to use this new data to produce elevation models known as “Digital Terrain Models” (DTMs) which are viewable with popular imaging software including ArcGIS and Google Earth. DTMs offer accurate high-density point fields with the added advantage of photo draping provided by photogrammetry. The varied types of images acquired have different applications and will be key new sources of data in ongoing investigations: (1) individual frames provide unique views for key sedimentologic and stratigraphic perspectives, (2) merged photo mosaics are used for constructing DTMs and for accurate measurements of features, (3) oblique 360° panoramas offer unique perspectives, and (4) merged, overlapping horizontal frames are used for continuous outcrop interpretation and measurements. Drones are changing the way geologists map in that it is now possible to acquire high-resolution photographs and elevation data of inaccessible locations. The University of Miami CSL – Center for Carbonate Research together with Camera Wings Aerial Photography conducted a field mapping survey on a portion of New Providence Island and at several localities in the Exuma Cays of the Bahamas. Camera Wings designs, builds, and operates drones, which are outfitted with the latest automated flight control systems, highest resolution digital cameras, and position data loggers to capture high-resolution oblique photographs and conduct photogrammetry. They have developed a Quad Copter configuration drone that offers unparalleled flight time and vertical take off and landing. Through the use of previously unattainable data acquired by the drone, we can now measure elevations and quantify key geomorphic features in the Bahamas field areas caused by the Holocene transgression and Pleistocene sea-level oscillations. Flight operations were conducted from the Clifton Heritage National Park on New Providence, and the deck of John G. Shedd Aquarium’s research vessel R/V Coral Reef II in the Exumas. Photos were stitched using Agisoft software and corrected with ground control points. Oblique aerial photographs were also shot and stitched to create life-like virtual 360° panoramas of key field areas. The drone imaging combined with advanced photogrammetry software allow us to use this new data to produce elevation models known as “Digital Terrain Models” (DTMs) which are viewable with popular imaging software including ArcGIS and Google Earth. DTMs offer accurate high-density point fields with the added advantage of photo draping provided by photogrammetry. The varied types of images acquired have different applications and will be key new sources of data in ongoing investigations: (1) individual frames provide unique views for key sedimentologic and stratigraphic perspectives, (2) merged photo mosaics are used for constructing DTMs and for accurate measurements of features, (3) oblique 360° panoramas offer unique perspectives, and (4) merged, overlapping horizontal frames are used for continuous outcrop interpretation and measurements. Panel_15660 Panel_15660 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Integration of lithology, diagenesis, and sequence stratigraphy constitutes a powerful tool for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution as well as the evolution of carbonate sequences and reservoir properties. The prograding Plio-Pleistocene reefs of the southern Dominican Republic provide an opportunity to characterize the diagenetic overprint, and assess lateral, vertical, and temporal trends along a reefal transect that has been exposed to repeated episodes of meteoric and marine diagenesis during high frequency sea-level cycles. A depositional model has been developed for a 7-core transect drilled perpendicular to a series of uplifted terraces from the oldest deposits 50 m above sea level (ASL) to the youngest deposits 6 m ASL. Chronological constraints include paleomagnetic, U-Th, and U-Pb dates. Diagenetic evolution for the cores is resolved with stable isotopes, trace elements (Sr, Mn, Fe) , mineralogy, sedimentary organic carbon (d13Corg) and total organic carbon (TOC). Age control for the 2 youngest cores has allowed for correlation of 7 sequences associated with sea level fluctuations during marine isotope stage (MIS) 5 (?125 ka) to MIS 17 (?700 ka). A U-Th age of 0.128±0.01 Ma (2?) at the top of the 15 m terrace correlates with the youngest sequence of the 6 m terrace and evidences deposition during MIS 5e. Meteoric diagenesis along the upper 40-50 m of the 2 cores is evidenced by subaerial exposures, stabilization to low-magnesium calcite and negative d13C (-6.60‰ to -0.03‰) and d18O (-5.46‰ to -0.98‰). A U-Pb age of 0.646±0.013 Ma (2?) for the shallow water reef deposits at 110 m below sea level evidences deposition during sea level lowstand MIS 16. These lowstand deposits are characterized by an increased amount of siliciclastics and positive marine d18O up to 1.60‰ and d13C up to 2.94‰, with preservation of original mineralogy. The flooding of MIS 11 marks a sedimentological transition. Reef development in the shallow shelf resulted in more carbonate production, steeper slopes and significant carbonate shedding into the forereef. The sequences of MIS 11 to MIS 5 show an overall shallowing-upward trend, where transgressive cycles are less evident as the margin progrades seaward. The combined depositional model from all 7 cores provides a record of reef response to the onset of high-amplitude cyclicity including changes in facies and architectural heterogeneities, as well as the resulting diagenetic overprint. Integration of lithology, diagenesis, and sequence stratigraphy constitutes a powerful tool for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution as well as the evolution of carbonate sequences and reservoir properties. The prograding Plio-Pleistocene reefs of the southern Dominican Republic provide an opportunity to characterize the diagenetic overprint, and assess lateral, vertical, and temporal trends along a reefal transect that has been exposed to repeated episodes of meteoric and marine diagenesis during high frequency sea-level cycles. A depositional model has been developed for a 7-core transect drilled perpendicular to a series of uplifted terraces from the oldest deposits 50 m above sea level (ASL) to the youngest deposits 6 m ASL. Chronological constraints include paleomagnetic, U-Th, and U-Pb dates. Diagenetic evolution for the cores is resolved with stable isotopes, trace elements (Sr, Mn, Fe) , mineralogy, sedimentary organic carbon (d13Corg) and total organic carbon (TOC). Age control for the 2 youngest cores has allowed for correlation of 7 sequences associated with sea level fluctuations during marine isotope stage (MIS) 5 (?125 ka) to MIS 17 (?700 ka). A U-Th age of 0.128±0.01 Ma (2?) at the top of the 15 m terrace correlates with the youngest sequence of the 6 m terrace and evidences deposition during MIS 5e. Meteoric diagenesis along the upper 40-50 m of the 2 cores is evidenced by subaerial exposures, stabilization to low-magnesium calcite and negative d13C (-6.60‰ to -0.03‰) and d18O (-5.46‰ to -0.98‰). A U-Pb age of 0.646±0.013 Ma (2?) for the shallow water reef deposits at 110 m below sea level evidences deposition during sea level lowstand MIS 16. These lowstand deposits are characterized by an increased amount of siliciclastics and positive marine d18O up to 1.60‰ and d13C up to 2.94‰, with preservation of original mineralogy. The flooding of MIS 11 marks a sedimentological transition. Reef development in the shallow shelf resulted in more carbonate production, steeper slopes and significant carbonate shedding into the forereef. The sequences of MIS 11 to MIS 5 show an overall shallowing-upward trend, where transgressive cycles are less evident as the margin progrades seaward. The combined depositional model from all 7 cores provides a record of reef response to the onset of high-amplitude cyclicity including changes in facies and architectural heterogeneities, as well as the resulting diagenetic overprint. Panel_15656 Panel_15656 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Stromatolite and bryozoan buildups of the Wuchiapingian age in Southern Permian Basin of Europe meet all definitions given for reefs and they commonly occur at the shelf edge. In a few places, including western Poland, they are also recorded in the basinal facies. These isolated reef bodies are usually one to more than 10 km wide and long and several tens to almost 100 m thick. The main part of the reef is formed by fragmented bryozoan zoaria. A characteristic feature is a large amount of fragmented skeletal remains lacking rigidity. The reefs abound in the hemispheroid (botryoidal) aragonitic cement that is otherwise common for the Zechstein reefs. Previous studies indicated the paleogeographic controls on reef location and a very irregular shape of reef bodies and sharp decrease of thickness, corresponding to facies change, at the margins of reefs. Modern botryoidal aragonite cements contribute significantly to a very rapid cementation of steep marginal slopes of reefs and undoubtedly aragonitic cementation (including formation of botryoidal crusts) of Zechstein bryozoan sands has had a similar effect. In addition, crusts showing clotted peloidal, thrombolitic, stromatolitic and fenestral fabrics abound, and they are accompanied by brecciated fabrics. Some crusts show complex history including phases of their fragmentation as indicated by common occurrence of centimetric crust clasts in upper slope boundstones. They are often steeply dipping laminar sheets and the submarine origin of the filled fractures is indicated by the presence of marine deposits and cements; they are regarded to be neptunian dykes. There were several stages of dyke opening in some cases. There is evidence of downslope movement, probably very local, of some blocks (several metres across) of reef-crest boundstones. Narrow columnar stromatolites are characteristic for the uppermost part of the slope, and in some cases they were growing on cement crusts. The Zechstein isolated reefs show thus remarkable similarities to steep high rising carbonate slopes dominated by boundstones such as the Permian Capitan margin of Delaware Basin or Carboniferous steep-sided isolated platforms of the Pricaspian Basin in western Kazakhstan. Stromatolite and bryozoan buildups of the Wuchiapingian age in Southern Permian Basin of Europe meet all definitions given for reefs and they commonly occur at the shelf edge. In a few places, including western Poland, they are also recorded in the basinal facies. These isolated reef bodies are usually one to more than 10 km wide and long and several tens to almost 100 m thick. The main part of the reef is formed by fragmented bryozoan zoaria. A characteristic feature is a large amount of fragmented skeletal remains lacking rigidity. The reefs abound in the hemispheroid (botryoidal) aragonitic cement that is otherwise common for the Zechstein reefs. Previous studies indicated the paleogeographic controls on reef location and a very irregular shape of reef bodies and sharp decrease of thickness, corresponding to facies change, at the margins of reefs. Modern botryoidal aragonite cements contribute significantly to a very rapid cementation of steep marginal slopes of reefs and undoubtedly aragonitic cementation (including formation of botryoidal crusts) of Zechstein bryozoan sands has had a similar effect. In addition, crusts showing clotted peloidal, thrombolitic, stromatolitic and fenestral fabrics abound, and they are accompanied by brecciated fabrics. Some crusts show complex history including phases of their fragmentation as indicated by common occurrence of centimetric crust clasts in upper slope boundstones. They are often steeply dipping laminar sheets and the submarine origin of the filled fractures is indicated by the presence of marine deposits and cements; they are regarded to be neptunian dykes. There were several stages of dyke opening in some cases. There is evidence of downslope movement, probably very local, of some blocks (several metres across) of reef-crest boundstones. Narrow columnar stromatolites are characteristic for the uppermost part of the slope, and in some cases they were growing on cement crusts. The Zechstein isolated reefs show thus remarkable similarities to steep high rising carbonate slopes dominated by boundstones such as the Permian Capitan margin of Delaware Basin or Carboniferous steep-sided isolated platforms of the Pricaspian Basin in western Kazakhstan. Panel_15659 Panel_15659 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Join SEPM in the Exhibition Hall for all-day poster sessions. Channels are conduits through which fluids, sediment (suspended and bed-load) and dissolved loads are transported across the Earth surface. Their general geomorphologic expression is comparable similar in terrestrial, submarine and extraterrestrial environments; however, formative sedimentary processes can be fundamentally different. For example, sinuosity and aspect ratio tend to be similar; however, submarine channels tend to be larger than fluvial channels and the stratigraphic records of fluvial and submarine channel deposits can be different. A key research challenge is the link between the geomorphic expression and stratigraphic record of channels. Rivers are more accessible to direct monitoring compared to submarine channels and the link between fluvial geomorphology and stratigraphy is better understood. In the case of submarine channels, we commonly rely on the stratigraphic record to inform insights about formative processes and evolution.

Join SEPM in the Exhibition Hall for all-day poster sessions. Channels are conduits through which fluids, sediment (suspended and bed-load) and dissolved loads are transported across the Earth surface. Their general geomorphologic expression is comparable similar in terrestrial, submarine and extraterrestrial environments; however, formative sedimentary processes can be fundamentally different. For example, sinuosity and aspect ratio tend to be similar; however, submarine channels tend to be larger than fluvial channels and the stratigraphic records of fluvial and submarine channel deposits can be different. A key research challenge is the link between the geomorphic expression and stratigraphic record of channels. Rivers are more accessible to direct monitoring compared to submarine channels and the link between fluvial geomorphology and stratigraphy is better understood. In the case of submarine channels, we commonly rely on the stratigraphic record to inform insights about formative processes and evolution.

Panel_14419 Panel_14419 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A novel, shallow-investigation, high-resolution 3D (HR3D) seismic acquisition system has been employed, for the first time in the Gulf of Mexico, to characterize storage potential and de-risk targets for CO2 sequestration. HR3D data can image detailed depositional, architectural, and structural features in the shallow subsurface that have previously been below seismic resolution and/or excluded from industry surveys, which are optimized for deeper targets. One HR3D survey is located just offshore from San Luis Pass, TX and covers an area of 31.5 km2. The dataset images the shallow subsurface with an unprecedented level of detail -- peak frequency of approximately 150Hz (8 25m cables, spaced at 12.5m, 6.25m by 6.25m bin size). Imaged within this dataset at ~100ms, is a mappable erosional unconformity that is interpreted to be associated with the Brazos River system during the last glacial-eustatic lowstand and following Holocene transgression. Through the analysis of stratal slices and the geometries of the valley form and its dendritic features, we explore the evolution history of the valley system during a transgressive episode. Observations indicate that the system evolves from a lowstand meandering channel with clear point-bar deposits to a transgressive estuary characterized by dendritic tidal features that is eventually flooded. This is an exceptional 3D example of a lowstand to transgressive transition and the sedimentary processes that dominate in each instance. A novel, shallow-investigation, high-resolution 3D (HR3D) seismic acquisition system has been employed, for the first time in the Gulf of Mexico, to characterize storage potential and de-risk targets for CO₂ sequestration. HR3D data can image detailed depositional, architectural, and structural features in the shallow subsurface that have previously been below seismic resolution and/or excluded from industry surveys, which are optimized for deeper targets. One HR3D survey is located just offshore from San Luis Pass, TX and covers an area of 31.5 km². The dataset images the shallow subsurface with an unprecedented level of detail -- peak frequency of approximately 150Hz (8 25m cables, spaced at 12.5m, 6.25m by 6.25m bin size). Imaged within this dataset at ~100ms, is a mappable erosional unconformity that is interpreted to be associated with the Brazos River system during the last glacial-eustatic lowstand and following Holocene transgression. Through the analysis of stratal slices and the geometries of the valley form and its dendritic features, we explore the evolution history of the valley system during a transgressive episode. Observations indicate that the system evolves from a lowstand meandering channel with clear point-bar deposits to a transgressive estuary characterized by dendritic tidal features that is eventually flooded. This is an exceptional 3D example of a lowstand to transgressive transition and the sedimentary processes that dominate in each instance. Panel_14843 Panel_14843 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recent advances in our understanding of the morpholological evolution of paleovalleys, the composite nature of the associated sequence boundary and its expression in down-dip locations have been largely guided by examples from passive margins, where subsidence increases basinward. This study documents a series of incisional fluvio-deltaic sandbodies from the Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group (central Appalachian Basin, USA), which fulfil the traditional definition of paleovalley fills. The Breathitt Group was deposited in an epicontinental foreland basin setting, in which there was no shelf-slope break, and paleovalleys can be tracked from the high accommodation orogenic margin towards the lower accommodation cratonic margin of the basin, over 100 km down-dip. Thus the upper Breathitt Group provides the opportunity to describe changes in up-dip to down-dip characteristics of paleovalleys from setting that contrasts markedly with continental shelf margins. Sandbody architecture has been captured through a combination of centimetre-scale sedimentary logging and annotation of photomosaics from km-long road-cuts to produce correlation panels. Sandbodies are typically 5-20 m thick, 0.5-30 km wide, and dominated by trough cross-bedded medium-to-coarse grained sandstone deposited as longitudinal bars. Heterolithic strata displaying lateral accretion occur, particularly towards the tops of valley fills, as well as rarer heterolith-filled abandonment plugs, slumps and slides. Characteristic changes between the proximal, high accommodation and the distal, low accommodation sectors of the basin include: (1) the number of stratigraphic levels containing major sandbodies decreases, and the sandbodies become increasingly discontinuous, suggesting an overall distributive morphology; (2) the sandbodies erode into increasingly open-marine facies; (3) the sandbodies contain an increasingly diverse, marine ichnofauna, suggesting increasing marine influence down depositional dip. Up-dip, a basinward facies shift at the bases of the paleovalleys is not evident, whereas down-dip an unambiguous basinward facies shift at the bases of the same sand bodies clearly distinguishes them as paleovalley fills. This contrasts with models for paleovalleys derived from passive margins, where the expression of the paleovalley is lost down-depositional dip, and poses the question “where does a channel complex become a palaeovalley-fill?” in settings where accommodation decreases down-dip. Recent advances in our understanding of the morpholological evolution of paleovalleys, the composite nature of the associated sequence boundary and its expression in down-dip locations have been largely guided by examples from passive margins, where subsidence increases basinward. This study documents a series of incisional fluvio-deltaic sandbodies from the Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group (central Appalachian Basin, USA), which fulfil the traditional definition of paleovalley fills. The Breathitt Group was deposited in an epicontinental foreland basin setting, in which there was no shelf-slope break, and paleovalleys can be tracked from the high accommodation orogenic margin towards the lower accommodation cratonic margin of the basin, over 100 km down-dip. Thus the upper Breathitt Group provides the opportunity to describe changes in up-dip to down-dip characteristics of paleovalleys from setting that contrasts markedly with continental shelf margins. Sandbody architecture has been captured through a combination of centimetre-scale sedimentary logging and annotation of photomosaics from km-long road-cuts to produce correlation panels. Sandbodies are typically 5-20 m thick, 0.5-30 km wide, and dominated by trough cross-bedded medium-to-coarse grained sandstone deposited as longitudinal bars. Heterolithic strata displaying lateral accretion occur, particularly towards the tops of valley fills, as well as rarer heterolith-filled abandonment plugs, slumps and slides. Characteristic changes between the proximal, high accommodation and the distal, low accommodation sectors of the basin include: (1) the number of stratigraphic levels containing major sandbodies decreases, and the sandbodies become increasingly discontinuous, suggesting an overall distributive morphology; (2) the sandbodies erode into increasingly open-marine facies; (3) the sandbodies contain an increasingly diverse, marine ichnofauna, suggesting increasing marine influence down depositional dip. Up-dip, a basinward facies shift at the bases of the paleovalleys is not evident, whereas down-dip an unambiguous basinward facies shift at the bases of the same sand bodies clearly distinguishes them as paleovalley fills. This contrasts with models for paleovalleys derived from passive margins, where the expression of the paleovalley is lost down-depositional dip, and poses the question “where does a channel complex become a palaeovalley-fill?” in settings where accommodation decreases down-dip. Panel_14839 Panel_14839 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Submarine channels can form important hydrocarbon reservoirs, and modern and ancient siliciclastic channels have been therefore intensively studied in the past. Significantly less is known of channels in carbonate environments. Particularly in non-tropical carbonate settings, information on channel geometries, morphology, architecture and channel-forming processes is limited. This study presents 3D seismic-reflection data of kilometre-scale submarine channels in non-tropical carbonates from different stratigraphic intervals of the European North Sea and the NW Australian Shelf. Though all systems studied developed under non-tropical deepwater conditions, they show distinctly different geometries interpreted to reflect differences in input variables including sediment flux and size, but also differences in the tectonic environment. 3D-seismic analysis of a kilometre-scale channel in the Upper Cretaceous part of the Chalk Group of the North Sea Central Graben documents a rather isolated, sinuous, leveed system that displays many of the architectural elements known from siliciclastic deepwater turbidites. This channel is interpreted to have formed an important conduit for recurrent turbulent flows transporting failed chalk material into the deeper basin depocentres in response to inversion tectonics. Nearby and at the same stratigraphic level, there are other, less extensive, highly asymmetric channels. These systems lack levees and are interpreted to have been eroded by bottom currents and filled laterally by chalk drifts. The channels preserved in the Paleogene section of the Browse Basin, NW-Australian Shelf, in contrast, are much narrower than the North Sea examples and occur in arrays as vertically and laterally-offset stacked multi-storey systems. The repetitive character and restriction to clinoform fronts suggests their development in response to sedimentation-driven clinoform oversteepening and failure under rather stable tectonic conditions. The significant variability in geometry, morphology and architecture of the deep-water carbonate channels presented documents that generalized predictions of deposit type and the associated reservoir properties are difficult. Controlling factors for this variability include active tectonics, differences in sediment type and size, the type of mass-transport system and the superimposed current regime. An understanding of these parameters will be essential for a successful exploration in deepwater carbonates. Submarine channels can form important hydrocarbon reservoirs, and modern and ancient siliciclastic channels have been therefore intensively studied in the past. Significantly less is known of channels in carbonate environments. Particularly in non-tropical carbonate settings, information on channel geometries, morphology, architecture and channel-forming processes is limited. This study presents 3D seismic-reflection data of kilometre-scale submarine channels in non-tropical carbonates from different stratigraphic intervals of the European North Sea and the NW Australian Shelf. Though all systems studied developed under non-tropical deepwater conditions, they show distinctly different geometries interpreted to reflect differences in input variables including sediment flux and size, but also differences in the tectonic environment. 3D-seismic analysis of a kilometre-scale channel in the Upper Cretaceous part of the Chalk Group of the North Sea Central Graben documents a rather isolated, sinuous, leveed system that displays many of the architectural elements known from siliciclastic deepwater turbidites. This channel is interpreted to have formed an important conduit for recurrent turbulent flows transporting failed chalk material into the deeper basin depocentres in response to inversion tectonics. Nearby and at the same stratigraphic level, there are other, less extensive, highly asymmetric channels. These systems lack levees and are interpreted to have been eroded by bottom currents and filled laterally by chalk drifts. The channels preserved in the Paleogene section of the Browse Basin, NW-Australian Shelf, in contrast, are much narrower than the North Sea examples and occur in arrays as vertically and laterally-offset stacked multi-storey systems. The repetitive character and restriction to clinoform fronts suggests their development in response to sedimentation-driven clinoform oversteepening and failure under rather stable tectonic conditions. The significant variability in geometry, morphology and architecture of the deep-water carbonate channels presented documents that generalized predictions of deposit type and the associated reservoir properties are difficult. Controlling factors for this variability include active tectonics, differences in sediment type and size, the type of mass-transport system and the superimposed current regime. An understanding of these parameters will be essential for a successful exploration in deepwater carbonates. Panel_14841 Panel_14841 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Non-marine sequence stratigraphic models for incised valleys predict systematic changes in fluvial style from lowstand through transgressive to highstand system tracts, assuming a constant rate of marine transgression. Downstream base-level influence on fluvial style however, can be highly variable, and may produce less predictable pattern. The main purpose of this paper is to evaluate the change in plan-view style of rivers from their upstream to downstream versus extent of the effects of backwater length recorded within a Cretaceous compound incised-valley fill in the Ferron Notom Delta, Henry Mountain region, southeast Utah. It was hypothesized that the backwater length, which is proportional to river flow depth and inversely correlated to river slope theoretically controls the effects of base-level change to propagate upstream. Previous studies on modern Mississippi river valley demonstrated that channel, channel-belts in a coastal-plain valley experience predictable morphological and sedimentological changes as they enter their backwater length, and characterized by rivers that are aggradational, avulsive and distributive in nature. This paper, for the first time, attempts to test these hypotheses in an ancient compound valley fill by detailed facies architectural analysis of channel and bar deposits from vertical measured sections and estimation of backwater limits from paleo-flow depth measurements in combination with measured changes in base level, tidal range and fluvial slope along an extensively exposed fluvial long profile. Three major erosional surfaces partitioned the compound valley fill into three sequences that have noticeable morphological and sedimentological differences from the upstream to downstream area. All three incised-valley fills in the downstream area shows a vertical translation from fluvial to tidal facies at the top of the valley. This suggests the rivers entered into their backwater length at the later phase of valley filling causing a systematic vertical decrease in overall grain size as well as an upward increase in preserved dune height and bar thickness. The valley fill deposits at the upstream area, which is roughly 15 km southwest, however, lie beyond the reach of the backwater effect and hence do not show any tidal influence, but consist of much coarser facies within channel bodies of relatively low width-thickness ratio. Non-marine sequence stratigraphic models for incised valleys predict systematic changes in fluvial style from lowstand through transgressive to highstand system tracts, assuming a constant rate of marine transgression. Downstream base-level influence on fluvial style however, can be highly variable, and may produce less predictable pattern. The main purpose of this paper is to evaluate the change in plan-view style of rivers from their upstream to downstream versus extent of the effects of backwater length recorded within a Cretaceous compound incised-valley fill in the Ferron Notom Delta, Henry Mountain region, southeast Utah. It was hypothesized that the backwater length, which is proportional to river flow depth and inversely correlated to river slope theoretically controls the effects of base-level change to propagate upstream. Previous studies on modern Mississippi river valley demonstrated that channel, channel-belts in a coastal-plain valley experience predictable morphological and sedimentological changes as they enter their backwater length, and characterized by rivers that are aggradational, avulsive and distributive in nature. This paper, for the first time, attempts to test these hypotheses in an ancient compound valley fill by detailed facies architectural analysis of channel and bar deposits from vertical measured sections and estimation of backwater limits from paleo-flow depth measurements in combination with measured changes in base level, tidal range and fluvial slope along an extensively exposed fluvial long profile. Three major erosional surfaces partitioned the compound valley fill into three sequences that have noticeable morphological and sedimentological differences from the upstream to downstream area. All three incised-valley fills in the downstream area shows a vertical translation from fluvial to tidal facies at the top of the valley. This suggests the rivers entered into their backwater length at the later phase of valley filling causing a systematic vertical decrease in overall grain size as well as an upward increase in preserved dune height and bar thickness. The valley fill deposits at the upstream area, which is roughly 15 km southwest, however, lie beyond the reach of the backwater effect and hence do not show any tidal influence, but consist of much coarser facies within channel bodies of relatively low width-thickness ratio. Panel_14842 Panel_14842 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Flow process and sediment transport within a channel bend and associated point bar have been studied in modern streams, theoretical models and physical experiments. However, the accuracy of these models are hard to evaluate for long-term evolution of natural rivers. It is also difficult to compare the resulting plan-form bar morphology and facies architecture of modern and modelled systems with what is preserved in the ancient rock record due to the lack of plan-view exposed outcrops. Moreover, compound point bars and scroll bars that are typically found in meandering rivers show different facies architecture, which is essentially the result of different flow processes that have rarely been distinguished. This study examined a point bar complex based on plan-view exposures of channel belts in outcrop of the Ferron Sandstone, south-central Utah. Flow process, sediment transport and bed shear stress show that compound point bars and scroll bars were formed during falling and rising flood stages respectively. The simulation of sine-generated streams showed that channel dimension parameters, such as radius of curvature and sinuosity, have small ranges of 351-205 m and 1.04-1.22 respectively throughout the evolution of the bend. Variation in flow process was interpreted as the main control on facies architecture and bar morphology. In this case, strong helical flow with a maximum strength of 1.05 was developed during the deposition of scroll bars but not the compound bars. The widely used paleocurrent indicator-dip direction of cross beds-was found to be inconsistent with the mean flow direction or the channel margin orientation. Flow process and sediment transport within a channel bend and associated point bar have been studied in modern streams, theoretical models and physical experiments. However, the accuracy of these models are hard to evaluate for long-term evolution of natural rivers. It is also difficult to compare the resulting plan-form bar morphology and facies architecture of modern and modelled systems with what is preserved in the ancient rock record due to the lack of plan-view exposed outcrops. Moreover, compound point bars and scroll bars that are typically found in meandering rivers show different facies architecture, which is essentially the result of different flow processes that have rarely been distinguished. This study examined a point bar complex based on plan-view exposures of channel belts in outcrop of the Ferron Sandstone, south-central Utah. Flow process, sediment transport and bed shear stress show that compound point bars and scroll bars were formed during falling and rising flood stages respectively. The simulation of sine-generated streams showed that channel dimension parameters, such as radius of curvature and sinuosity, have small ranges of 351-205 m and 1.04-1.22 respectively throughout the evolution of the bend. Variation in flow process was interpreted as the main control on facies architecture and bar morphology. In this case, strong helical flow with a maximum strength of 1.05 was developed during the deposition of scroll bars but not the compound bars. The widely used paleocurrent indicator-dip direction of cross beds-was found to be inconsistent with the mean flow direction or the channel margin orientation. Panel_14847 Panel_14847 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Sediment supply to the Equatorial Guinean continental margin consists predominantly of northbound littoral-drift derived mud and sand from the Ogooue River in Gabon. Locally, sediment is sourced from the Mitemele and Benito rivers, low discharge rivers ending in large estuaries. The sediment flux is low, and delivery of sand to the deep sea is limited to a few locations where canyon heads erode into the shelf edge. These canyons are erosive, sand rich, and terminate in extensive submarine aprons (Type I canyons). The vast majority of submarine canyons along the margin do not indent the shelf edge, are muddy and aggradational, and lack any downslope sediment apron/fan (Type II canyons). Smooth, draping seismic reflections indicate that hemipelagic deposition is the chief depositional process aggrading the Type II canyons. Intra-canyon lateral accretion deposits indicate that canyon concavity is maintained by thick (>150 m), dilute, turbidity currents. This study attempts to reconstruct sediment budgets and routing systems for the Equatorial Guinean continental margin and determine the causal mechanisms for variations in temporal sediment flux. Planktic foraminifera from two cores from the modern seafloor, obtained in water depths of 268 and 497 m, provide radiocarbon ages which indicate an average sedimentation rate of ~30 cm/ky (centimeters per kiloyear) during the last ~40,000 years. This relatively slow accumulation rate does not seem to be influenced by changes in relative sea level, supporting the interpretation that hemipelagic deposition is the dominant process aggrading the Type II canyon system. A long term (8 Ma - Recent) sedimentation rate previously calculated in the study area (3.4 cm/ky) is 10x slower than the short term rate calculated in the present study. This discrepancy in rates may be a manifestation of the Sadler effect, a theory that predicts decreasing sedimentation rate as the measured time interval increases. Although the overall sedimentation rate during the last 40 ka averages ~30 cm/ky, there is an abrupt increase during the 15-10 ka time interval to 80-180 cm/ky. We investigate possible causal mechanisms for this increase using sea surface temperature and salinity proxies derived from foraminiferal trace metal data. Constraining temporal and spatial sediment flux to the study area will aid in understanding the development of low sediment supply continental margins with Type II canyons. Sediment supply to the Equatorial Guinean continental margin consists predominantly of northbound littoral-drift derived mud and sand from the Ogooue River in Gabon. Locally, sediment is sourced from the Mitemele and Benito rivers, low discharge rivers ending in large estuaries. The sediment flux is low, and delivery of sand to the deep sea is limited to a few locations where canyon heads erode into the shelf edge. These canyons are erosive, sand rich, and terminate in extensive submarine aprons (Type I canyons). The vast majority of submarine canyons along the margin do not indent the shelf edge, are muddy and aggradational, and lack any downslope sediment apron/fan (Type II canyons). Smooth, draping seismic reflections indicate that hemipelagic deposition is the chief depositional process aggrading the Type II canyons. Intra-canyon lateral accretion deposits indicate that canyon concavity is maintained by thick (>150 m), dilute, turbidity currents. This study attempts to reconstruct sediment budgets and routing systems for the Equatorial Guinean continental margin and determine the causal mechanisms for variations in temporal sediment flux. Planktic foraminifera from two cores from the modern seafloor, obtained in water depths of 268 and 497 m, provide radiocarbon ages which indicate an average sedimentation rate of ~30 cm/ky (centimeters per kiloyear) during the last ~40,000 years. This relatively slow accumulation rate does not seem to be influenced by changes in relative sea level, supporting the interpretation that hemipelagic deposition is the dominant process aggrading the Type II canyon system. A long term (8 Ma - Recent) sedimentation rate previously calculated in the study area (3.4 cm/ky) is 10x slower than the short term rate calculated in the present study. This discrepancy in rates may be a manifestation of the Sadler effect, a theory that predicts decreasing sedimentation rate as the measured time interval increases. Although the overall sedimentation rate during the last 40 ka averages ~30 cm/ky, there is an abrupt increase during the 15-10 ka time interval to 80-180 cm/ky. We investigate possible causal mechanisms for this increase using sea surface temperature and salinity proxies derived from foraminiferal trace metal data. Constraining temporal and spatial sediment flux to the study area will aid in understanding the development of low sediment supply continental margins with Type II canyons. Panel_14835 Panel_14835 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

By simultaneously examining halokinetics and channel evolution of a deepwater area it is possible to unravel the interactions between the two dynamic bodies. The study area is located in the Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico, and is situated directly off the continental slope in a prominent salt dome region. While there is a plethora of study on submarine channels in the Gulf of Mexico, their interactions with salt domes are poorly documented. Utilizing 3D seismic data and seismic geomorphology techniques, a long-lived Plio-Pleistocene submarine channel system has been investigated to understand the interaction between channel evolution and changing seascape driven by rising salt domes. In the study area, salt diapirism began to affect the seafloor topography during the late Pliocene. This shifting topography has exerted a first order control on the evolution of the meandering submarine channel, as seen in the seismic data. When investigating the channel evolution and halokinetics concurrently, a relationship becomes apparent. The study results reveal a mechanism to determine variable phases of salt movement based on plan-form morphology of preserved channels. For example, highly sinuous channels developed during periods of slow salt movement whereas straighter channels formed when salt moved upward more rapidly. Furthermore, the channels display a feedback mechanism that illustrates how areas of lower topography on the seafloor were created as the salt was reaching its diapiric state, and the channels adjusted by migrating towards these structural lows. As the channels avulsed and migrated, they were subject to an increase in slope. This increase in slope corresponds to and is directly related to a decrease in meander intensity. Thus, this study reveals how salt movement has acted as a structural control on both the location and morphology of the meandering channel complex. By simultaneously examining halokinetics and channel evolution of a deepwater area it is possible to unravel the interactions between the two dynamic bodies. The study area is located in the Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico, and is situated directly off the continental slope in a prominent salt dome region. While there is a plethora of study on submarine channels in the Gulf of Mexico, their interactions with salt domes are poorly documented. Utilizing 3D seismic data and seismic geomorphology techniques, a long-lived Plio-Pleistocene submarine channel system has been investigated to understand the interaction between channel evolution and changing seascape driven by rising salt domes. In the study area, salt diapirism began to affect the seafloor topography during the late Pliocene. This shifting topography has exerted a first order control on the evolution of the meandering submarine channel, as seen in the seismic data. When investigating the channel evolution and halokinetics concurrently, a relationship becomes apparent. The study results reveal a mechanism to determine variable phases of salt movement based on plan-form morphology of preserved channels. For example, highly sinuous channels developed during periods of slow salt movement whereas straighter channels formed when salt moved upward more rapidly. Furthermore, the channels display a feedback mechanism that illustrates how areas of lower topography on the seafloor were created as the salt was reaching its diapiric state, and the channels adjusted by migrating towards these structural lows. As the channels avulsed and migrated, they were subject to an increase in slope. This increase in slope corresponds to and is directly related to a decrease in meander intensity. Thus, this study reveals how salt movement has acted as a structural control on both the location and morphology of the meandering channel complex. Panel_14838 Panel_14838 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The emerging deepwater gas province offshore East Africa presents great opportunities and also dilemmas in high-grading a vast region for petroleum potential. Known hydrocarbon play elements are Cretaceous and Early Tertiary deepwater fan systems, structurally-enhanced stratigraphic traps, and a functioning gas petroleum system with unknown liquids potential. The fan/channel reservoirs contain remarkable reservoir properties and a high degree of connectivity; however, their distribution is more problematic. The ability to map reservoir spatial and temporal distribution is a critical undeveloped play element. We outline a workflow that enables this mapping by generating high-resolution horizon interpretations of a coarse regional 2D seismic grid over a 400,000 square kilometer area. Regional mapping of time-correlative stratal packages outlines the broader depositional and tectonic-stratigraphic framework. Detailed mapping of various architectural elements within these stratal packages reveals systematic variation both within and between stratal intervals. Channel morphology and related geo-body types and dimensions vary both up- and down- depositional gradient, but also according to stratigraphic position. Geo-body dimensions and distribution are dictated by the geomorphic gradient and profile controlling sediment deposition. Steeper profiles have greater potential energy and thus higher incision in up-dip positions, with little levee development and more aggradational frontal splays and lobes occurring down-dip. Sediment partitioning favors down-profile deposition and channel concentration in fewer channels. The resulting stratigraphic record favors single-story channel systems and smaller, multi-storied lobes. Lower-gradient profiles generate more low-energy density flows, resulting in less up-dip incision and significant, symmetric levee development and shingled or progradational frontal splays in down dip positions. The resulting stratigraphic record favors multiple, along-strike channel development creating laterally persistent, single-storied sands and aerially larger, shingled fan lobes. Understanding the distribution and stacking of these different architectural elements through time has significant implications for trapping, reservoir distribution and connectivity. Application of this work provides enhanced predictability to exploration efforts, including distribution of reservoir properties in a regional basin context. The emerging deepwater gas province offshore East Africa presents great opportunities and also dilemmas in high-grading a vast region for petroleum potential. Known hydrocarbon play elements are Cretaceous and Early Tertiary deepwater fan systems, structurally-enhanced stratigraphic traps, and a functioning gas petroleum system with unknown liquids potential. The fan/channel reservoirs contain remarkable reservoir properties and a high degree of connectivity; however, their distribution is more problematic. The ability to map reservoir spatial and temporal distribution is a critical undeveloped play element. We outline a workflow that enables this mapping by generating high-resolution horizon interpretations of a coarse regional 2D seismic grid over a 400,000 square kilometer area. Regional mapping of time-correlative stratal packages outlines the broader depositional and tectonic-stratigraphic framework. Detailed mapping of various architectural elements within these stratal packages reveals systematic variation both within and between stratal intervals. Channel morphology and related geo-body types and dimensions vary both up- and down- depositional gradient, but also according to stratigraphic position. Geo-body dimensions and distribution are dictated by the geomorphic gradient and profile controlling sediment deposition. Steeper profiles have greater potential energy and thus higher incision in up-dip positions, with little levee development and more aggradational frontal splays and lobes occurring down-dip. Sediment partitioning favors down-profile deposition and channel concentration in fewer channels. The resulting stratigraphic record favors single-story channel systems and smaller, multi-storied lobes. Lower-gradient profiles generate more low-energy density flows, resulting in less up-dip incision and significant, symmetric levee development and shingled or progradational frontal splays in down dip positions. The resulting stratigraphic record favors multiple, along-strike channel development creating laterally persistent, single-storied sands and aerially larger, shingled fan lobes. Understanding the distribution and stacking of these different architectural elements through time has significant implications for trapping, reservoir distribution and connectivity. Application of this work provides enhanced predictability to exploration efforts, including distribution of reservoir properties in a regional basin context. Panel_14845 Panel_14845 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A few key questions inevitably arise while mapping seismically-imaged channel bodies from past landscapes. Where was the shoreline? Can the planform of channel bodies help us predict the reservoir characteristics of the preserved deposits? In this talk, we will discuss how the back-water length scale in rivers defines systematic changes in stratal architecture across the transition from normal flow to the back-water influenced zone. A spatial reduction in bed material flux is observed where rivers transition from normal flow to the back-water influenced zone, as the river flow begins to feel the effect of sea-level in the receiving basin. The back-water length, scaled by characteristic flow depth divided by water surface slope, is a characteristic length scale of all rivers entering a receiving basin and is best distinguished in deep lowland rivers with shallow gradient. Measurements along the Holocene Mississippi Channel Belt from Cairo to Head of Passes show a dramatic reduction in the width of the channel belt from roughly 20 times the channel width upstream of the transition zone to nearly equal to the channel width downstream of the transition zone. This variation in width of the channel belt is tied to the decreased lateral mobility of the channel downstream of the back-water transition. The thickness of bank-attached bar deposits, collected from USACE cores in 110 cross-sections, was used as a proxy for channel depth from Cairo to Head of Passes. Thickness trends reveal that bank-attached bars thicken from approximately 20m upstream of the transition to 45m just above Head of Passes, while decreased lateral migration results in less extensive bar deposits. A comparison of 4 different channel belts from the Rhine-Meuse and Mississippi systems is presented. For these two systems, we present a method that uses the backwater length to non-dimensionalize the geometries of channel belts with disparate scales. We apply this scaling to the Mio-Pliocene Mississippi Delta system, imaged in an industry seismic volume over Breton sound, to estimate distance to the shoreline. Our estimates are tested against independent reconstructions of paleo-geography for the area. Results indicate that this method can be a powerful tool for reconstructing paleo-environment of deposition and characterizing reservoir architecture in ancient seismically-imaged channel belts. A few key questions inevitably arise while mapping seismically-imaged channel bodies from past landscapes. Where was the shoreline? Can the planform of channel bodies help us predict the reservoir characteristics of the preserved deposits? In this talk, we will discuss how the back-water length scale in rivers defines systematic changes in stratal architecture across the transition from normal flow to the back-water influenced zone. A spatial reduction in bed material flux is observed where rivers transition from normal flow to the back-water influenced zone, as the river flow begins to feel the effect of sea-level in the receiving basin. The back-water length, scaled by characteristic flow depth divided by water surface slope, is a characteristic length scale of all rivers entering a receiving basin and is best distinguished in deep lowland rivers with shallow gradient. Measurements along the Holocene Mississippi Channel Belt from Cairo to Head of Passes show a dramatic reduction in the width of the channel belt from roughly 20 times the channel width upstream of the transition zone to nearly equal to the channel width downstream of the transition zone. This variation in width of the channel belt is tied to the decreased lateral mobility of the channel downstream of the back-water transition. The thickness of bank-attached bar deposits, collected from USACE cores in 110 cross-sections, was used as a proxy for channel depth from Cairo to Head of Passes. Thickness trends reveal that bank-attached bars thicken from approximately 20m upstream of the transition to 45m just above Head of Passes, while decreased lateral migration results in less extensive bar deposits. A comparison of 4 different channel belts from the Rhine-Meuse and Mississippi systems is presented. For these two systems, we present a method that uses the backwater length to non-dimensionalize the geometries of channel belts with disparate scales. We apply this scaling to the Mio-Pliocene Mississippi Delta system, imaged in an industry seismic volume over Breton sound, to estimate distance to the shoreline. Our estimates are tested against independent reconstructions of paleo-geography for the area. Results indicate that this method can be a powerful tool for reconstructing paleo-environment of deposition and characterizing reservoir architecture in ancient seismically-imaged channel belts. Panel_14834 Panel_14834 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The ability to directly monitor sediment gravity flows that shape submarine channels on the modern seafloor remains largely elusive. As a result, the sedimentary record is perhaps the most accessible and suitable laboratory from which to consider the dynamic history of channelized sediment transfer and deposition within slope channels. Our analysis features the well-preserved fill of an outcropping submarine channel (“Unit -2”) in the Tres Pasos Fm (Cretaceous), Chile. A spectrum of processes results in fill patterns within channelform bodies 15-25 m thick and 200-400 m wide, including an axial sandstone-dominated zone bound by composite erosional surfaces that define lateral contacts with thin-bedded and finer- grained channel margin units. Channel margin deposits drape or lap onto the composite edge of the channel form. Seventy to eighty percent of the cross-sectional channel fill consists of sandstone-dominated (axis) strata and 20-30% mudstone-prone (margin) strata. A series of 17 stratigraphic sections measured at 0.1 cm resolution through the channel fill, from the channel axis through margin transition, document the number and spatial distribution of sedimentation units, or turbidity current events. Our analysis reveals that >500 individual, distinct sedimentation units are present in the single channel fill. However, <5% of the recorded sedimentation units are preserved in channel axis deposits. Insight into prolonged sediment transfer is preserved in cross-sectionally limited channel margin sedimentation units; many of these fine-grained units overlie erosion surfaces, recording deposition from the dilute tails or fringes of highly erosive, mainly bypassing turbidity currents. The total number of distinct sedimentation units represents the minimum number of turbidity currents that passed through the channel over its lifecycle. Stratigraphic correlation reveals that thinner-bedded, finer-grained margin facies track into thicker-bedded axis facies. At least ten discontinuities form the composite surface that defines the contact between channel axis and margin; a nuanced, time transgressive channel evolution interpretation is required to account for the observations made. A simple, two-step cut and fill model for submarine channels does not represent the prolonged and dynamic nature of evolutionary processes. Thick-bedded, sand-rich channel filling is highly episodic and rare against a background of channel maintenance by bypassing turbidity currents. The ability to directly monitor sediment gravity flows that shape submarine channels on the modern seafloor remains largely elusive. As a result, the sedimentary record is perhaps the most accessible and suitable laboratory from which to consider the dynamic history of channelized sediment transfer and deposition within slope channels. Our analysis features the well-preserved fill of an outcropping submarine channel (“Unit -2”) in the Tres Pasos Fm (Cretaceous), Chile. A spectrum of processes results in fill patterns within channelform bodies 15-25 m thick and 200-400 m wide, including an axial sandstone-dominated zone bound by composite erosional surfaces that define lateral contacts with thin-bedded and finer- grained channel margin units. Channel margin deposits drape or lap onto the composite edge of the channel form. Seventy to eighty percent of the cross-sectional channel fill consists of sandstone-dominated (axis) strata and 20-30% mudstone-prone (margin) strata. A series of 17 stratigraphic sections measured at 0.1 cm resolution through the channel fill, from the channel axis through margin transition, document the number and spatial distribution of sedimentation units, or turbidity current events. Our analysis reveals that >500 individual, distinct sedimentation units are present in the single channel fill. However, <5% of the recorded sedimentation units are preserved in channel axis deposits. Insight into prolonged sediment transfer is preserved in cross-sectionally limited channel margin sedimentation units; many of these fine-grained units overlie erosion surfaces, recording deposition from the dilute tails or fringes of highly erosive, mainly bypassing turbidity currents. The total number of distinct sedimentation units represents the minimum number of turbidity currents that passed through the channel over its lifecycle. Stratigraphic correlation reveals that thinner-bedded, finer-grained margin facies track into thicker-bedded axis facies. At least ten discontinuities form the composite surface that defines the contact between channel axis and margin; a nuanced, time transgressive channel evolution interpretation is required to account for the observations made. A simple, two-step cut and fill model for submarine channels does not represent the prolonged and dynamic nature of evolutionary processes. Thick-bedded, sand-rich channel filling is highly episodic and rare against a background of channel maintenance by bypassing turbidity currents. Panel_14846 Panel_14846 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Submarine channels occur in many physiographic domains of the deep-sea environment. They have a large spectrum of planforms, dimensions, internal elements and hierarchic significance. This paper focuses on a type of submarine channel found in different environmental settings of the modern seafloor in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The channels are straight or very gently curving and vary in width from 100 to 500 m, with a maximum relief in the order of 10-15 m. Their main feature is a noticeable asymmetry resulting from a steep, abrupt margin and a gentler, more gradual one. Channels are never isolated, but are rather part of extensive channelized areas. Within the channelized areas, elevated longitudinal areas separate the channels. The elevated areas have sediment waves and scours indicative of flows that from their crests point toward the adjacent channels. Sidescan sonar data show that along the gentle channel margin a clear passage between the channels and the bars cannot be picked up. On the contrary, an abrupt limit is observed in coincidence with the steep channel side. Subbottom profiles indicate that the elevated areas are depositional, with deposits that continue along the gentle channel side and, although often with a different seismic facies, also represent the channel infill. Thus, the elevated areas are not erosional remnants between fully erosional channels. Upslope from the channelized areas the seafloor is flat indicating that it is the site of laterally widespread flows. Therefore, we also infer that the elevated areas are not levees, since they are not formed by flows which overbank the channels. They are rather formed from flows that occupy the whole channelized areas and behave differently in the channels and in the elevated areas. We conclude that the elevated areas are better interpreted as bars. As a whole, we explain the channel as being migrating elements with an erosional cut bank and a depositional one where lateral accretion is occurring from the longitudinal bars. The channels and longitudinal bars are located downslope from slope channel mouths in transient fans, or compose channel belts confined within slope channels. They develop on seafloor with a gradient in excess of 1° and where sampled, they consist of sandy or gravelly sediments. The Tyrrhenian sea data, suggest therefore that laterally migrating channels and longitudinal bars are components of channelized, high-gradient, coarse grained systems connected to deeper base levels. Submarine channels occur in many physiographic domains of the deep-sea environment. They have a large spectrum of planforms, dimensions, internal elements and hierarchic significance. This paper focuses on a type of submarine channel found in different environmental settings of the modern seafloor in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The channels are straight or very gently curving and vary in width from 100 to 500 m, with a maximum relief in the order of 10-15 m. Their main feature is a noticeable asymmetry resulting from a steep, abrupt margin and a gentler, more gradual one. Channels are never isolated, but are rather part of extensive channelized areas. Within the channelized areas, elevated longitudinal areas separate the channels. The elevated areas have sediment waves and scours indicative of flows that from their crests point toward the adjacent channels. Sidescan sonar data show that along the gentle channel margin a clear passage between the channels and the bars cannot be picked up. On the contrary, an abrupt limit is observed in coincidence with the steep channel side. Subbottom profiles indicate that the elevated areas are depositional, with deposits that continue along the gentle channel side and, although often with a different seismic facies, also represent the channel infill. Thus, the elevated areas are not erosional remnants between fully erosional channels. Upslope from the channelized areas the seafloor is flat indicating that it is the site of laterally widespread flows. Therefore, we also infer that the elevated areas are not levees, since they are not formed by flows which overbank the channels. They are rather formed from flows that occupy the whole channelized areas and behave differently in the channels and in the elevated areas. We conclude that the elevated areas are better interpreted as bars. As a whole, we explain the channel as being migrating elements with an erosional cut bank and a depositional one where lateral accretion is occurring from the longitudinal bars. The channels and longitudinal bars are located downslope from slope channel mouths in transient fans, or compose channel belts confined within slope channels. They develop on seafloor with a gradient in excess of 1° and where sampled, they consist of sandy or gravelly sediments. The Tyrrhenian sea data, suggest therefore that laterally migrating channels and longitudinal bars are components of channelized, high-gradient, coarse grained systems connected to deeper base levels. Panel_14837 Panel_14837 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recent debate has focused on the potential preservation of the signal of seismic events in the sedimentary record via the initiation of large-scale turbidity current flows. It has been postulated that details of seismic activity may be recorded in turbidites. For example, given the long run out time of turbidity currents, secondary turbidity currents events, initiated by seismic aftershocks, are likely to interact with the primary events creating a “pulsing” flow. Such pulsing flow may also be generated if the failure of a seismic fault lies across an interconnected series of submarine channel systems, where a seismic trigger may generate multiple linked flows. With variation in feeder channel length causing variation in the time taken for individual flows to reach channel confluences, the resultant turbidity current is also expected to be pulsed. Thus, cyclical waxing to waning behavior preserved in graded flow deposits may be a key indicator of secondary seismic activity or a seismic trigger acting over an interconnected channel system. Dependent on the ability for signal preservation in pulsing flows, deposit grading may provide a novel means of assessing proximity to source and/or system architecture. Novel experimental research is presented that explores the dynamics of pulsed turbidity currents. The experimental study is used to quantitatively examine controls on the time and length scale of signal preservation. Parameters investigated include volumes of material released, effective flow density and viscosity (as a proxy of flow mud content). Full flow field visualization was made using an array of interlinked HD cameras. Dyeing separate components of the flow different colors enabled detailed analysis of flow dynamic behavior occurring between head and tail. The secondary pulsing flow was seen to rapidly overtake the first flow. Observations of flow velocity and density suggested that due to stratification the secondary flow was travelling along the density interface between the main body of the primary flow and its turbulent wake. As the pulsing flows created in the laboratory experiments rapidly merged, it suggests that it is difficult to preserve pulsing signals of interacting turbidity currents over long run out distance or times. However, these initial experiments have been carried out with solute currents on flat slopes. Particulate currents travelling over a pronounced gradient may have a significantly different signal preservation behavior. Recent debate has focused on the potential preservation of the signal of seismic events in the sedimentary record via the initiation of large-scale turbidity current flows. It has been postulated that details of seismic activity may be recorded in turbidites. For example, given the long run out time of turbidity currents, secondary turbidity currents events, initiated by seismic aftershocks, are likely to interact with the primary events creating a “pulsing” flow. Such pulsing flow may also be generated if the failure of a seismic fault lies across an interconnected series of submarine channel systems, where a seismic trigger may generate multiple linked flows. With variation in feeder channel length causing variation in the time taken for individual flows to reach channel confluences, the resultant turbidity current is also expected to be pulsed. Thus, cyclical waxing to waning behavior preserved in graded flow deposits may be a key indicator of secondary seismic activity or a seismic trigger acting over an interconnected channel system. Dependent on the ability for signal preservation in pulsing flows, deposit grading may provide a novel means of assessing proximity to source and/or system architecture. Novel experimental research is presented that explores the dynamics of pulsed turbidity currents. The experimental study is used to quantitatively examine controls on the time and length scale of signal preservation. Parameters investigated include volumes of material released, effective flow density and viscosity (as a proxy of flow mud content). Full flow field visualization was made using an array of interlinked HD cameras. Dyeing separate components of the flow different colors enabled detailed analysis of flow dynamic behavior occurring between head and tail. The secondary pulsing flow was seen to rapidly overtake the first flow. Observations of flow velocity and density suggested that due to stratification the secondary flow was travelling along the density interface between the main body of the primary flow and its turbulent wake. As the pulsing flows created in the laboratory experiments rapidly merged, it suggests that it is difficult to preserve pulsing signals of interacting turbidity currents over long run out distance or times. However, these initial experiments have been carried out with solute currents on flat slopes. Particulate currents travelling over a pronounced gradient may have a significantly different signal preservation behavior. Panel_14840 Panel_14840 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The 3-D reconstruction of meanderbelt deposits from ancient strata can provide significant insight into the long-term (i.e., centuries to millennia) evolution of fluvial systems. A significant challenge to such analyses is limited exposures in outcrop belts and widely spaced or low-resolution perspectives in subsurface datasets. A particularly dense and high quality dataset consisting of 130 km2 of high-quality 3D seismic data and over 350 well penetrations from the Cretaceous McMurray Formation of northeastern Alberta, Canada provides a unique perspective of an immense ancient river system. The high-resolution dataset features large-scale meandering channel elements, associated with paleochannels that were 400-600 m wide and up to 50 m deep. The data reveals evidence for intra-point bar rotation, neck cut-offs, point bar accretion and other morphodynamic processes. The stratigraphic expression of these processes is recognized through creation of a 3-D geocellular model that includes core-calibrated lithologic properties and seismic-constrained surface projections. A specific objective is to characterize the ancient expression of morphodynamic processes that are commonly observed in modern systems, yet rarely described from the rock record. The analysis also provides insight into sandstone and, inherently, reservoir distribution within the ancient meanderbelt. Reconstructed paleochannel migration patterns reveal the evolutionary history of eight individual meanderbelt elements, including point bars, counter point bars, abandoned channel fills, side bars and mid-channel bars, which have been mapped in core, FMI and seismic data and incorporated into the geocellular model. Results of the study show intra-point bar erosion surfaces bound lateral accretion packages characterized by unique accretion directions, internal stratigraphic architecture and lithologic properties. Individual lateral accretion packages fine as they evolve, as do entire point bars. Seismic and FMI characterization also reveals a multi-phase channel abandonment history that includes vertical aggradation, sidebar development and mid-channel bar deposition, which is not typically recognized in ancient meandering river deposits. The 3-D reconstruction of meanderbelt deposits from ancient strata can provide significant insight into the long-term (i.e., centuries to millennia) evolution of fluvial systems. A significant challenge to such analyses is limited exposures in outcrop belts and widely spaced or low-resolution perspectives in subsurface datasets. A particularly dense and high quality dataset consisting of 130 km² of high-quality 3D seismic data and over 350 well penetrations from the Cretaceous McMurray Formation of northeastern Alberta, Canada provides a unique perspective of an immense ancient river system. The high-resolution dataset features large-scale meandering channel elements, associated with paleochannels that were 400-600 m wide and up to 50 m deep. The data reveals evidence for intra-point bar rotation, neck cut-offs, point bar accretion and other morphodynamic processes. The stratigraphic expression of these processes is recognized through creation of a 3-D geocellular model that includes core-calibrated lithologic properties and seismic-constrained surface projections. A specific objective is to characterize the ancient expression of morphodynamic processes that are commonly observed in modern systems, yet rarely described from the rock record. The analysis also provides insight into sandstone and, inherently, reservoir distribution within the ancient meanderbelt. Reconstructed paleochannel migration patterns reveal the evolutionary history of eight individual meanderbelt elements, including point bars, counter point bars, abandoned channel fills, side bars and mid-channel bars, which have been mapped in core, FMI and seismic data and incorporated into the geocellular model. Results of the study show intra-point bar erosion surfaces bound lateral accretion packages characterized by unique accretion directions, internal stratigraphic architecture and lithologic properties. Individual lateral accretion packages fine as they evolve, as do entire point bars. Seismic and FMI characterization also reveals a multi-phase channel abandonment history that includes vertical aggradation, sidebar development and mid-channel bar deposition, which is not typically recognized in ancient meandering river deposits. Panel_14844 Panel_14844 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Lower Cretaceous McMurray Formation Type Section is located 5km downstream from the confluence of the Athabasca and Clearwater rivers and extends 2 km along the east bank of the Athabasca River. This outstanding, up to 80 m thick exposure has been visited by many geologists, but remains poorly documented in literature. The outcrop is comprised of four distinct stratigraphic units. The focus of this report is on heterogeneities observed across the large-scale (35m thick) channel deposit. Since oil-saturated, this outcrop also presents an unparalleled portal for reservoir studies. Data was acquired through detailed two-dimensional outcrop mapping recorded on high resolution photographs and scaled photo-montages, line-drawing of various geological contacts interpreted on both outcrops and images, and integrating detailed (cm-dm) bed-by-bed logging along selected outcrop exposures. Mapping and line drawings were further assisted by the collection of paleo-flow indicators. These data were coupled with core descriptions from drill holes behind the outcrop which allowed for 3D visualization. Point bar evolution is interpreted based on nature (geometry) of contacts, geometric relationship of mapped architectural elements, facies changes between architectural elements, and paleo-current indicators. Detailed mapping revealed numerous enigmatic features commonly not associated with point bar processes and architecture that include: (1) five types of breccia not associated with channel lag deposits; (2) a variety of mud occurrences in high-energy bottom-channel deposits; (3) encased channel shaped features within the mid-to-upper point-bar deposits (interpreted as short lived chute and rill channels); and (4) paleo-current reversals. Observations of detailed reservoir architecture from the Type Section provides a basis for characterizing dynamic interplay of deposition and erosion of channel deposits on various time scales; new insights for point-bar facies models; and more fulsome understanding of the impact of facies heterogeneities on reservoir oil-charge and in-reservoir fluid migration. The Lower Cretaceous McMurray Formation Type Section is located 5km downstream from the confluence of the Athabasca and Clearwater rivers and extends 2 km along the east bank of the Athabasca River. This outstanding, up to 80 m thick exposure has been visited by many geologists, but remains poorly documented in literature. The outcrop is comprised of four distinct stratigraphic units. The focus of this report is on heterogeneities observed across the large-scale (35m thick) channel deposit. Since oil-saturated, this outcrop also presents an unparalleled portal for reservoir studies. Data was acquired through detailed two-dimensional outcrop mapping recorded on high resolution photographs and scaled photo-montages, line-drawing of various geological contacts interpreted on both outcrops and images, and integrating detailed (cm-dm) bed-by-bed logging along selected outcrop exposures. Mapping and line drawings were further assisted by the collection of paleo-flow indicators. These data were coupled with core descriptions from drill holes behind the outcrop which allowed for 3D visualization. Point bar evolution is interpreted based on nature (geometry) of contacts, geometric relationship of mapped architectural elements, facies changes between architectural elements, and paleo-current indicators. Detailed mapping revealed numerous enigmatic features commonly not associated with point bar processes and architecture that include: (1) five types of breccia not associated with channel lag deposits; (2) a variety of mud occurrences in high-energy bottom-channel deposits; (3) encased channel shaped features within the mid-to-upper point-bar deposits (interpreted as short lived chute and rill channels); and (4) paleo-current reversals. Observations of detailed reservoir architecture from the Type Section provides a basis for characterizing dynamic interplay of deposition and erosion of channel deposits on various time scales; new insights for point-bar facies models; and more fulsome understanding of the impact of facies heterogeneities on reservoir oil-charge and in-reservoir fluid migration. Panel_14836 Panel_14836 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14429 Panel_14429 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Handheld X-ray fluorescence (HHXRF) instruments are increasingly used to acquire elemental data in unconventional plays. Because the instruments provide a means to quickly acquire inorganic geochemical data by direct, high resolution, non-destructive analysis of cores, they are powerful tools in helping to understand unconventional resource plays. However, with the proliferation of HHXRF data acquisition, the basic concepts of geologically understanding elemental data have become somewhat forgotten; the need to understand the controls on elemental changes and combine elemental data with other datasets are often omitted from HHXRF studies, which greatly diminishes the usefulness of the datasets. A 14 well chemostratigraphic correlation of Ordovician and Silurian sediments from the Rietavas Licence of Lithuania constructed from data acquired by HHXRF and handheld magnetic susceptibility (HHMS) instruments will be presented. The correlation incorporates over 1000 HHXRF and HHMS determinations made by direct measurement of conventional cores at storage facilities in Lithuania and the UK. Although the correlation defined is chemostratigraphically robust, its geological significance would have remained enigmatic if the additional data outlined below had not been acquired. A lack of understanding of the controls on elemental and magnetic susceptibility data in any study, unconventional or conventional, greatly diminishes the amount information that can be gleaned from the data and can render chemostratigraphic correlations meaningless. Here, X-ray diffraction, petrographic, and TOC data were acquired from a subset of core samples and sedimentological logs were compiled for select cores. By integrating these traditional data with the hand held datasets, it is shown that key variables used to define the chemostratigraphic correlation are responding to paleosol development (Fe2O3, MS, MgO), marine productivity (P2O5), provenance (Zr, TiO2), paleoredox (U, Mo, V) and facies (Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, MgO). Not only does this provide context to the chemostratigraphic correlation, it adds to understanding the depositional evolution of study intervals. This “return-to-basics” approach to using HHXRF data provides a clear demonstration that when carefully interpreted, elemental data acquired by direct analysis of core, using handheld instruments, is able to provide enhanced stratigraphic and geological understanding in subsurface studies. Handheld X-ray fluorescence (HHXRF) instruments are increasingly used to acquire elemental data in unconventional plays. Because the instruments provide a means to quickly acquire inorganic geochemical data by direct, high resolution, non-destructive analysis of cores, they are powerful tools in helping to understand unconventional resource plays. However, with the proliferation of HHXRF data acquisition, the basic concepts of geologically understanding elemental data have become somewhat forgotten; the need to understand the controls on elemental changes and combine elemental data with other datasets are often omitted from HHXRF studies, which greatly diminishes the usefulness of the datasets. A 14 well chemostratigraphic correlation of Ordovician and Silurian sediments from the Rietavas Licence of Lithuania constructed from data acquired by HHXRF and handheld magnetic susceptibility (HHMS) instruments will be presented. The correlation incorporates over 1000 HHXRF and HHMS determinations made by direct measurement of conventional cores at storage facilities in Lithuania and the UK. Although the correlation defined is chemostratigraphically robust, its geological significance would have remained enigmatic if the additional data outlined below had not been acquired. A lack of understanding of the controls on elemental and magnetic susceptibility data in any study, unconventional or conventional, greatly diminishes the amount information that can be gleaned from the data and can render chemostratigraphic correlations meaningless. Here, X-ray diffraction, petrographic, and TOC data were acquired from a subset of core samples and sedimentological logs were compiled for select cores. By integrating these traditional data with the hand held datasets, it is shown that key variables used to define the chemostratigraphic correlation are responding to paleosol development (Fe2O3, MS, MgO), marine productivity (P2O5), provenance (Zr, TiO2), paleoredox (U, Mo, V) and facies (Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, MgO). Not only does this provide context to the chemostratigraphic correlation, it adds to understanding the depositional evolution of study intervals. This “return-to-basics” approach to using HHXRF data provides a clear demonstration that when carefully interpreted, elemental data acquired by direct analysis of core, using handheld instruments, is able to provide enhanced stratigraphic and geological understanding in subsurface studies. Panel_14954 Panel_14954 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recently, the shale gas has become an important source of energy around the globe, thus attracting many operators to engage in research on shale gas. To support the industry efforts, it is our objective to create a simple yet robust method of image analysis which would lead to better evaluation of gas bearing intervals and higher gas production from shale gas wells. We propose an efficient method for imaging the absorbed water vapor on shale. We used the SEM to generate images of the shale samples after being exposed to water vapor. We found a remarkable contrast between the sample regions where the water vapor was absorbed randomly and the unabsorbed regions. Interestingly, various types of micro fractures initiated in and propagated from the regions of highly absorbed water vapor. To quantify the micro fractures and the contrasting regions, we processed the SEM images. We used segmentation algorithm to distinguish the above mentioned regions in the shale. Furthermore, dynamic threshholding and morphological concepts were applied to separate the absorbed water vapor regions from the rest. Finally, we filtered the SEM image spectrum for edge detection which was necessary for seamlessly transitioning the absorbed water vapor regions to micro fractures. We conclude that: (1) The amount of absorbed water vapor is directly related to the initiation of micro fractures and activation of gas bearing capillaries in the shale, (2) Dynamic thresholding and segmentation parameters illustrate the robustness of image processing technique for images with dissimilar illuminations and colors, and (3) the proposed technique can analyze the shale samples automatically, quickly, and reliably. Based on the SEM image analysis, which detect many useful attributes, the proposed method can help the operators in making the best decision for shale gas prospecting. This computerized method offers the industry with the following: (1) Increases the speed and accuracy of the analysis of intervals with high micro fracture density and identifies the micro fracture types and sizes per unit mass and (2) Accurately quantifies and separates the regions of shale where the absorbed water and the activated, gas bearing capillaries are the most. These contributions could lead to the enhanced shale gas production. Recently, the shale gas has become an important source of energy around the globe, thus attracting many operators to engage in research on shale gas. To support the industry efforts, it is our objective to create a simple yet robust method of image analysis which would lead to better evaluation of gas bearing intervals and higher gas production from shale gas wells. We propose an efficient method for imaging the absorbed water vapor on shale. We used the SEM to generate images of the shale samples after being exposed to water vapor. We found a remarkable contrast between the sample regions where the water vapor was absorbed randomly and the unabsorbed regions. Interestingly, various types of micro fractures initiated in and propagated from the regions of highly absorbed water vapor. To quantify the micro fractures and the contrasting regions, we processed the SEM images. We used segmentation algorithm to distinguish the above mentioned regions in the shale. Furthermore, dynamic threshholding and morphological concepts were applied to separate the absorbed water vapor regions from the rest. Finally, we filtered the SEM image spectrum for edge detection which was necessary for seamlessly transitioning the absorbed water vapor regions to micro fractures. We conclude that: (1) The amount of absorbed water vapor is directly related to the initiation of micro fractures and activation of gas bearing capillaries in the shale, (2) Dynamic thresholding and segmentation parameters illustrate the robustness of image processing technique for images with dissimilar illuminations and colors, and (3) the proposed technique can analyze the shale samples automatically, quickly, and reliably. Based on the SEM image analysis, which detect many useful attributes, the proposed method can help the operators in making the best decision for shale gas prospecting. This computerized method offers the industry with the following: (1) Increases the speed and accuracy of the analysis of intervals with high micro fracture density and identifies the micro fracture types and sizes per unit mass and (2) Accurately quantifies and separates the regions of shale where the absorbed water and the activated, gas bearing capillaries are the most. These contributions could lead to the enhanced shale gas production. Panel_14947 Panel_14947 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) has become a mainstay geochemical technique in the petroleum industry, especially in the analysis of mudstone-dominated successions. In the last few years ED-XRF has been utilized to generate supporting data sets, with applications ranging from directional drilling to reservoir characterization and optimization in unconventional plays. It is also used to generate data sets for correlation, elementally-defined mineralogical variability, and facies discrimination. With all of the emphasis on generating geochemical/chemostratigraphic data sets, it is important to define the limitations, errors, and best-practice strategies for generating the most useful results. In order to optimize the quality and usability of ED-XRF data sets, a rigorous approach to sample preparation and measurement techniques should be taken. If done properly, an ED-XRF analysis of a slabbed drill core face has the potential to yield quantitative geochemical results that help quantify individual facies and the degree of facies variability—at a range of scales, from fractions of an inch to feet, depending upon the requirements of the study. The spatial resolution of a well cuttings geochemical data set may be on the order of ten to thirty feet, and the retrieved samples are much more susceptible to contamination with respect to samples taken from drill core. The positive attribute of well cuttings is that they are far more accessible. Scanning of unconsolidated cuttings in sample cups is the easiest and fastest method for undertaking XRF analysis; however, pulverizing and pelletizing the cuttings before scanning ensures a more homogeneous matrix and increases the sensitivity to (and accuracy of) lighter major element concentrations (e.g., Na through Ca). In essence, the pelletized powder from a well cuttings sample mimics the slabbed face of a core, providing the optimal form of sample. Geochemical results from a Cretaceous Eagle Ford shale drill core and the accompanying set of well cuttings are evaluated in order to demonstrate the limits, pitfalls, and benefits of the various methods of generating XRF data sets. Energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) has become a mainstay geochemical technique in the petroleum industry, especially in the analysis of mudstone-dominated successions. In the last few years ED-XRF has been utilized to generate supporting data sets, with applications ranging from directional drilling to reservoir characterization and optimization in unconventional plays. It is also used to generate data sets for correlation, elementally-defined mineralogical variability, and facies discrimination. With all of the emphasis on generating geochemical/chemostratigraphic data sets, it is important to define the limitations, errors, and best-practice strategies for generating the most useful results. In order to optimize the quality and usability of ED-XRF data sets, a rigorous approach to sample preparation and measurement techniques should be taken. If done properly, an ED-XRF analysis of a slabbed drill core face has the potential to yield quantitative geochemical results that help quantify individual facies and the degree of facies variability—at a range of scales, from fractions of an inch to feet, depending upon the requirements of the study. The spatial resolution of a well cuttings geochemical data set may be on the order of ten to thirty feet, and the retrieved samples are much more susceptible to contamination with respect to samples taken from drill core. The positive attribute of well cuttings is that they are far more accessible. Scanning of unconsolidated cuttings in sample cups is the easiest and fastest method for undertaking XRF analysis; however, pulverizing and pelletizing the cuttings before scanning ensures a more homogeneous matrix and increases the sensitivity to (and accuracy of) lighter major element concentrations (e.g., Na through Ca). In essence, the pelletized powder from a well cuttings sample mimics the slabbed face of a core, providing the optimal form of sample. Geochemical results from a Cretaceous Eagle Ford shale drill core and the accompanying set of well cuttings are evaluated in order to demonstrate the limits, pitfalls, and benefits of the various methods of generating XRF data sets. Panel_14946 Panel_14946 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The effective exploitation of most shale petroleum reservoirs is generally considered to be reliant on the creation of economically productive fractures within the low permeability shale matrix. Hydraulic fracture stimulation is the most commonly attempted method of achieving this, and the creation of effectively propped fracture surface area is a key component of doing this successfully. Although field evidence is limited it is generally acknowledged that many such hydraulic fracture treatments result in significant fracture area that is minimally propped (monolayer of proppant), partially propped or not propped at all and yet is in hydraulic communication with the wellbore. Many factors may contribute to the reduction of this initial fracture conductivity and we will present some work related to retained fracture conductivity from the perspective of rock rheology. Rock mechanical testing was performed on core samples from the Duvernay Shale from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin and the Wolfcamp Shale from the Midland Permian Basin. The stress and time-dependent mechanical properties of these shales were determined and are described in relation to the petrophysical composition and fabric of the reservoir interval. Of note, the time-dependent deformation of some producing shales is on the same order as the elastic deformation. Appropriate creep deformation models were built to describe this behavior and to improve the overall constitutive model of shale response to stress changes through time. Proppant embedment and fracture conductivity measurements were made in these same shales over a range of stress and time paths. The constitutive models are shown to be able to predict the reduction in conductivity due to embedment. Numerical models are used to demonstrate the impact of reservoir stress path on damage mechanisms that act to reduce initial fracture conductivity. The implications for proppant selection and managed pressure drawdown are discussed. The effective exploitation of most shale petroleum reservoirs is generally considered to be reliant on the creation of economically productive fractures within the low permeability shale matrix. Hydraulic fracture stimulation is the most commonly attempted method of achieving this, and the creation of effectively propped fracture surface area is a key component of doing this successfully. Although field evidence is limited it is generally acknowledged that many such hydraulic fracture treatments result in significant fracture area that is minimally propped (monolayer of proppant), partially propped or not propped at all and yet is in hydraulic communication with the wellbore. Many factors may contribute to the reduction of this initial fracture conductivity and we will present some work related to retained fracture conductivity from the perspective of rock rheology. Rock mechanical testing was performed on core samples from the Duvernay Shale from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin and the Wolfcamp Shale from the Midland Permian Basin. The stress and time-dependent mechanical properties of these shales were determined and are described in relation to the petrophysical composition and fabric of the reservoir interval. Of note, the time-dependent deformation of some producing shales is on the same order as the elastic deformation. Appropriate creep deformation models were built to describe this behavior and to improve the overall constitutive model of shale response to stress changes through time. Proppant embedment and fracture conductivity measurements were made in these same shales over a range of stress and time paths. The constitutive models are shown to be able to predict the reduction in conductivity due to embedment. Numerical models are used to demonstrate the impact of reservoir stress path on damage mechanisms that act to reduce initial fracture conductivity. The implications for proppant selection and managed pressure drawdown are discussed. Panel_14940 Panel_14940 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Middle Devonian Geneseo Formation and lateral equivalents in the Northern Appalachian Basin constitute shale-gas plays with promising economic potential. Mudstone properties within the Geneseo are highly variable, and reflect an overall shallowing trend that corresponds to the westward progradation of the Catskill delta. High-resolution stratigraphy has allowed differentiation of genetically related packages, comprised of distinct lithofacies, with characteristic physical, biological, and chemical attributes. Correlation of this succession was conducted at the parasequence scale, and includes detailed descriptions of multiple drill cores and surface exposures, as well as subsurface mapping. Isopach maps were constructed to identify thickness trends and lateral variations of mudstone properties, and the Geneseo Formation has been differentiated into two discrete depositional sequences with three lithostratigraphic units (the Lower Geneseo, Fir Tree, and Upper Geneseo members). The Lower Geneseo Member overlies the Tully Formation, and where the latter is absent, its basal contact is marked by a pyritic-phosphatic lag (the Leicester Pyrite Bed; MFDLS). The Lower Geneseo is an organic-rich dark gray to grayish black mudstone succession with aggradational to progradational parasequence stacking patterns (HST). The Fir Tree Member unconformably overlies the Lower Geneseo, displays progradational-aggradational-retrogradational parasequence stacking patterns (LST and TST), and consists of silt-rich calcareous mudstones rich in auloporid tabulate corals, ostracodes, and small brachiopods. The Upper Geneseo displays aggradational to progradational parasequence stacking patterns (HST), and consists of dark gray silty mudstones and muddy siltstones with abundant wave/current ripples, graded beds, and evidence for extensive reworking and erosion. Reactivation of basement structures and syndepositional faulting appears to have strongly influenced accommodation during deposition of the Geneseo Formation. In particular, the N-S trending Clarendon-Linden Fault System seems to have acted as a western sediment barrier during Geneseo Time. Through the development of a fully integrated sequence stratigraphic framework that incorporates surface and subsurface data, reservoir quality and distribution in the Geneseo Formation can be evaluated away from sample control, and thus enhance the potential for future economic success of unconventional resource plays in this interval. The Middle Devonian Geneseo Formation and lateral equivalents in the Northern Appalachian Basin constitute shale-gas plays with promising economic potential. Mudstone properties within the Geneseo are highly variable, and reflect an overall shallowing trend that corresponds to the westward progradation of the Catskill delta. High-resolution stratigraphy has allowed differentiation of genetically related packages, comprised of distinct lithofacies, with characteristic physical, biological, and chemical attributes. Correlation of this succession was conducted at the parasequence scale, and includes detailed descriptions of multiple drill cores and surface exposures, as well as subsurface mapping. Isopach maps were constructed to identify thickness trends and lateral variations of mudstone properties, and the Geneseo Formation has been differentiated into two discrete depositional sequences with three lithostratigraphic units (the Lower Geneseo, Fir Tree, and Upper Geneseo members). The Lower Geneseo Member overlies the Tully Formation, and where the latter is absent, its basal contact is marked by a pyritic-phosphatic lag (the Leicester Pyrite Bed; MFDLS). The Lower Geneseo is an organic-rich dark gray to grayish black mudstone succession with aggradational to progradational parasequence stacking patterns (HST). The Fir Tree Member unconformably overlies the Lower Geneseo, displays progradational-aggradational-retrogradational parasequence stacking patterns (LST and TST), and consists of silt-rich calcareous mudstones rich in auloporid tabulate corals, ostracodes, and small brachiopods. The Upper Geneseo displays aggradational to progradational parasequence stacking patterns (HST), and consists of dark gray silty mudstones and muddy siltstones with abundant wave/current ripples, graded beds, and evidence for extensive reworking and erosion. Reactivation of basement structures and syndepositional faulting appears to have strongly influenced accommodation during deposition of the Geneseo Formation. In particular, the N-S trending Clarendon-Linden Fault System seems to have acted as a western sediment barrier during Geneseo Time. Through the development of a fully integrated sequence stratigraphic framework that incorporates surface and subsurface data, reservoir quality and distribution in the Geneseo Formation can be evaluated away from sample control, and thus enhance the potential for future economic success of unconventional resource plays in this interval. Panel_14950 Panel_14950 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Elemental geochemistry is widely used to characterize the depositional history of unconventional plays. Although this method can inform chronostratigraphic interpretations, there are risks involved in using the same dataset for paleoenvironmental reconstruction as well. Diachronous facies cannot be fully recognized with elemental geochemistry alone; it must integrated with other methodologies, such as stable carbon isotope chemostratigraphy. Diagnostic signals recorded by d13C curves in marine sedimentary rocks are well documented to be isochronous, facies independent, and highly resistant to late diagenetic alteration, making this a powerful tool for chronostratigraphic correlation. Elemental and stable isotope chemostratigraphy are integrated herein to investigate paleoenvironmental diachroneity in the Duvernay Formation, a mid-Frasnian carbonate-rich shale play in the Western Canada Basin. Twelve wells are included in the study: eight from the Kaybob area and four from Willesden Green. During the mid-Frasnian, these were partially isolated sub-basins, further compartmentalized by local reef build-ups. Changes in paleoredox have been modelled between sub-basins using a multi-trace element approach, providing a framework for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution of preserved organic matter across the play. The timing of anoxia can be calibrated by a series of diagnostic d13Corg excursions, which are correlated with a high degree of confidence between wells. These fluctuations, which are interpreted as the mid-Frasnian “punctata Excursion” constrain the Duvernay Formation in the study wells to the transitans, punctata, and hassi conodont Biozones. Furthermore, they demonstrate that development of anoxia is not synchronous between the Kaybob and Willesden Green, or even between closely spaced wells. This fine-scale diachroneity occurs below the resolution of traditional biostratigraphic methods, underscoring to the applicability of stable carbon isotopes for chronostratigraphic correlation in unconventional plays. Elemental geochemistry is widely used to characterize the depositional history of unconventional plays. Although this method can inform chronostratigraphic interpretations, there are risks involved in using the same dataset for paleoenvironmental reconstruction as well. Diachronous facies cannot be fully recognized with elemental geochemistry alone; it must integrated with other methodologies, such as stable carbon isotope chemostratigraphy. Diagnostic signals recorded by d13C curves in marine sedimentary rocks are well documented to be isochronous, facies independent, and highly resistant to late diagenetic alteration, making this a powerful tool for chronostratigraphic correlation. Elemental and stable isotope chemostratigraphy are integrated herein to investigate paleoenvironmental diachroneity in the Duvernay Formation, a mid-Frasnian carbonate-rich shale play in the Western Canada Basin. Twelve wells are included in the study: eight from the Kaybob area and four from Willesden Green. During the mid-Frasnian, these were partially isolated sub-basins, further compartmentalized by local reef build-ups. Changes in paleoredox have been modelled between sub-basins using a multi-trace element approach, providing a framework for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution of preserved organic matter across the play. The timing of anoxia can be calibrated by a series of diagnostic d13Corg excursions, which are correlated with a high degree of confidence between wells. These fluctuations, which are interpreted as the mid-Frasnian “punctata Excursion” constrain the Duvernay Formation in the study wells to the transitans, punctata, and hassi conodont Biozones. Furthermore, they demonstrate that development of anoxia is not synchronous between the Kaybob and Willesden Green, or even between closely spaced wells. This fine-scale diachroneity occurs below the resolution of traditional biostratigraphic methods, underscoring to the applicability of stable carbon isotopes for chronostratigraphic correlation in unconventional plays. Panel_14949 Panel_14949 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Kuwait Oil company is currently engaged in an early phase of appraisal of the deep tight fractured carbonate reservoirs and resource plays of Oxfordian – Callovian age (over 14000ft depth, HPHT) in the northern part of Kuwait. The primary driver for successful appraisal of such unconventional reservoirs is optimal wellbore design (horizontal well) maximizing reservoir contact which intersects open fractures or facilitates effective hydraulic fracturing. The key factors that determine the success in achieving the objectives of these horizontal wells are well selection, well placement and well testing and completion. The well design and placement of these horizontal wells is severely constrained by the very highly overpressured (upto 21 ppg mud weight equivalent) evaporite section (Salt+Anhydrite) overlying the target unconventional reservoirs. Although, the individual thickness of the reservoir units range from 40’-50’ , for well placement / geo-steering purposes the sweet spot within these units is of the order of 5’-10’. Due to resolution limitation of the available 3D seismic data, predicting local dip changes of the order 1°-2° and very minor subseismic faults at the depth range of 14000’-15000’ is fraught with higher uncertainty. To mitigate the well placement challenges and maximize success, utilising innovative workflows many iterations / updating of the initial fine scale static model (which is constrained by the offset well data and 3D seismic data) are carried out and different potential scenarios (for changes in dip and observed apparent thickness changes as a result of the combination of bed dip and inclination of the well) are prepared dynamically in conjunction with the well placement team to assist in real time geosteering of the well. Taking into consideration the lessons learnt from the two horizontal wells drilled recently, the above novel approach has resulted in 100% placement of 2000’ drain hole in the third well (final TD: approx.. 19000’ MD) targeting the deep unconventional reservoir in northern part of Kuwait. Kuwait Oil company is currently engaged in an early phase of appraisal of the deep tight fractured carbonate reservoirs and resource plays of Oxfordian – Callovian age (over 14000ft depth, HPHT) in the northern part of Kuwait. The primary driver for successful appraisal of such unconventional reservoirs is optimal wellbore design (horizontal well) maximizing reservoir contact which intersects open fractures or facilitates effective hydraulic fracturing. The key factors that determine the success in achieving the objectives of these horizontal wells are well selection, well placement and well testing and completion. The well design and placement of these horizontal wells is severely constrained by the very highly overpressured (upto 21 ppg mud weight equivalent) evaporite section (Salt+Anhydrite) overlying the target unconventional reservoirs. Although, the individual thickness of the reservoir units range from 40’-50’ , for well placement / geo-steering purposes the sweet spot within these units is of the order of 5’-10’. Due to resolution limitation of the available 3D seismic data, predicting local dip changes of the order 1°-2° and very minor subseismic faults at the depth range of 14000’-15000’ is fraught with higher uncertainty. To mitigate the well placement challenges and maximize success, utilising innovative workflows many iterations / updating of the initial fine scale static model (which is constrained by the offset well data and 3D seismic data) are carried out and different potential scenarios (for changes in dip and observed apparent thickness changes as a result of the combination of bed dip and inclination of the well) are prepared dynamically in conjunction with the well placement team to assist in real time geosteering of the well. Taking into consideration the lessons learnt from the two horizontal wells drilled recently, the above novel approach has resulted in 100% placement of 2000’ drain hole in the third well (final TD: approx.. 19000’ MD) targeting the deep unconventional reservoir in northern part of Kuwait. Panel_14948 Panel_14948 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Bedding-parallel fractures are common although not ubiquitous in shale. Several lines of evidence (mine-back experiments, microseismic data and tiltmeter data) suggest that hydraulic fractures used to stimulate wells in hydrocarbon reservoirs sometimes have a horizontal (bedding-parallel) component, even at significant depth. Natural, sealed horizontal fractures may facilitate horizontal growth of hydraulic fractures by acting as planes of weakness that enhance the already marked strength anisotropy due to bedding-parallel laminae and planar fabric. Impacts on hydraulic fracture growth might include height growth inhibition and horizontal propagation. Intensity and morphology of bedding-parallel fractures vary; planar, lens-shaped fractures, and complex, branching geometries are all found. Cement fills are typically calcite or sulphates, sometimes with hydrocarbon inclusions, and may be fibrous or show crack-seal texture. Quartz also occurs, and pyrite is a common accessory mineral. Scaling of faults and subvertical opening-mode fractures has been well documented, with populations following power-law distributions. We investigate whether similar scaling laws apply to bedding-parallel fracture sets. One of the challenges of collecting systematic data for bedding-parallel fractures is the difficulty of distinguishing between fibrous beef-filled fractures and fossils with a fibrous structure, e.g. the Inoceramidae bivalves present in many Mesozoic shales. We show criteria to distinguish these during core-description work, and demonstrate stable isotope and petrographic differences. Different mechanisms may be responsible for fracture generation and more than one mechanism may have operated in the history of a given shale. We will attempt to use stable isotope geochemistry and fluid inclusion analysis to constrain conditions of formation, and thereby narrow down the possible mechanisms for each case. This approach, along with tying the occurrence to lithotype, will allow us to predict bedding-parallel fracture occurrences. Bedding-parallel fractures are common although not ubiquitous in shale. Several lines of evidence (mine-back experiments, microseismic data and tiltmeter data) suggest that hydraulic fractures used to stimulate wells in hydrocarbon reservoirs sometimes have a horizontal (bedding-parallel) component, even at significant depth. Natural, sealed horizontal fractures may facilitate horizontal growth of hydraulic fractures by acting as planes of weakness that enhance the already marked strength anisotropy due to bedding-parallel laminae and planar fabric. Impacts on hydraulic fracture growth might include height growth inhibition and horizontal propagation. Intensity and morphology of bedding-parallel fractures vary; planar, lens-shaped fractures, and complex, branching geometries are all found. Cement fills are typically calcite or sulphates, sometimes with hydrocarbon inclusions, and may be fibrous or show crack-seal texture. Quartz also occurs, and pyrite is a common accessory mineral. Scaling of faults and subvertical opening-mode fractures has been well documented, with populations following power-law distributions. We investigate whether similar scaling laws apply to bedding-parallel fracture sets. One of the challenges of collecting systematic data for bedding-parallel fractures is the difficulty of distinguishing between fibrous beef-filled fractures and fossils with a fibrous structure, e.g. the Inoceramidae bivalves present in many Mesozoic shales. We show criteria to distinguish these during core-description work, and demonstrate stable isotope and petrographic differences. Different mechanisms may be responsible for fracture generation and more than one mechanism may have operated in the history of a given shale. We will attempt to use stable isotope geochemistry and fluid inclusion analysis to constrain conditions of formation, and thereby narrow down the possible mechanisms for each case. This approach, along with tying the occurrence to lithotype, will allow us to predict bedding-parallel fracture occurrences. Panel_14951 Panel_14951 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Cline Shale is an organic-rich mudrock deposited in the Midland Basin during the Late Pennsylvanian. Exploration and production activity in this unconventional resource play has increased in recent years. A depositional model of the Cline Shale is interpreted using regional wireline log stratigraphy coupled with a core-based, high-resolution geochemical model. The study area was a restricted deep-water, epicratonic basin near the southern extent of Laurussia during the late Pennsylvanian. It is widely thought that slow sedimentation rates and oceanic oxygen depletion controlled the accumulation and preservation of organic matter. Large amplitude relative sea-level changes contributed to significant depositional heterogeneity both laterally and vertically throughout the Cline. The eastern boundary of the Cline Shale is the Eastern Shelf, where it grades into Canyon and Cisco age carbonates, shales, and sandstones. The Central Basin Platform and the Horseshoe Atoll are the western and northern boundaries of the Cline system respectively. Distinct changes in wireline log character from the Eastern Shelf into the Midland basin are apparent, and these changes can be attributed to basin-scale heterogeneities within the Cline Shale. High-resolution (2-inch sampling interval) x-ray fluorescence (XRF) geochemical data were collected from four Cline Shale cores. Three of the cores are discontinuous and represent deposition at or near the basin center. One core preserves a continuous Cline section and represents strata deposited on the slope of the Eastern Shelf. The XRF data delineate both mineralogical composition and depositional conditions, i.e., periods of oceanic oxygen depletion, throughout the interval at sub-facies resolution. Chemical facies can be interpreted on a 2-inch scale using agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis; a statistical method that identifies similar groups of data in large datasets. This high-resolution facies scheme is coupled with strategic TOC and XRD measurements in order to create a robust geochemical model for the Cline Shale. The basin-centered cores and the core on the slope of the Eastern Shelf exhibit two distinct depositional and redox environments. These differences can be related to paleogeography and the transgressive nature of the formation. The Cline Shale is an organic-rich mudrock deposited in the Midland Basin during the Late Pennsylvanian. Exploration and production activity in this unconventional resource play has increased in recent years. A depositional model of the Cline Shale is interpreted using regional wireline log stratigraphy coupled with a core-based, high-resolution geochemical model. The study area was a restricted deep-water, epicratonic basin near the southern extent of Laurussia during the late Pennsylvanian. It is widely thought that slow sedimentation rates and oceanic oxygen depletion controlled the accumulation and preservation of organic matter. Large amplitude relative sea-level changes contributed to significant depositional heterogeneity both laterally and vertically throughout the Cline. The eastern boundary of the Cline Shale is the Eastern Shelf, where it grades into Canyon and Cisco age carbonates, shales, and sandstones. The Central Basin Platform and the Horseshoe Atoll are the western and northern boundaries of the Cline system respectively. Distinct changes in wireline log character from the Eastern Shelf into the Midland basin are apparent, and these changes can be attributed to basin-scale heterogeneities within the Cline Shale. High-resolution (2-inch sampling interval) x-ray fluorescence (XRF) geochemical data were collected from four Cline Shale cores. Three of the cores are discontinuous and represent deposition at or near the basin center. One core preserves a continuous Cline section and represents strata deposited on the slope of the Eastern Shelf. The XRF data delineate both mineralogical composition and depositional conditions, i.e., periods of oceanic oxygen depletion, throughout the interval at sub-facies resolution. Chemical facies can be interpreted on a 2-inch scale using agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis; a statistical method that identifies similar groups of data in large datasets. This high-resolution facies scheme is coupled with strategic TOC and XRD measurements in order to create a robust geochemical model for the Cline Shale. The basin-centered cores and the core on the slope of the Eastern Shelf exhibit two distinct depositional and redox environments. These differences can be related to paleogeography and the transgressive nature of the formation. Panel_14943 Panel_14943 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

An analysis of a core from the Marcellus Formation of Western Pennsylvania was undertaken using 3 laboratory tools; an XRF, SEM with EDX capability and a HAWK pyrolysis instrument. A 4th parameter was porosity measurements from a PHIE and PHIT neutron emitting tool,. Unexpected relationships emerged from a comparison between the various downhole curves. Hydrocarbons that were generated from kerogen pyrolysis (S2) varied directly with the neutron probe's total porosity. Macroporosity (SEM >5 microns) varied more closely with the TOC. Macroporosity also varied with the siliceous microfossil content, particularly radiolaria within the Marcellus and unknown shell hash in the overlying Burkett and paralleled the free silica. The “free oil” S1 showed a similar distribution to the S2 and indicated 3 prospective sweetspots; Lower Marcellus, Upper Marcellus and Burkett. Carbonate horizons showed low porosity, due to the presence of clay. The SEM also showed the limestones were extensively bioturbated, shelly and phosphatic. Pyrolysis showed they had low TOC. The carbonate rich relatively oxidizing paleoenvironment allowed for the presence of burrowing organisms. The rest of the Marcellus seemed to have been deposited under very anoxic conditions and was largely composed of silty clay, siltiest near the base of the formation. The zones of lowest clay content (Middle of the Lower Marcellus "transgressive systems tract") also had highest macroporosity, highest oil content (S1, S2), and probably correspond to the best sweet spot. Organic richness is very good within the Marcellus, ranging between 2 and 12 % TOC and so is the source potential (S2 often greater than 5 mg hydrocarbons/g rock). The Burkett - Tully Limestone often had greater than 2% TOC. Tmax maturity data showed the Marcellus to lie in the condensate/wet gas window (Tmax of 455 – 475 °C). The Lower Marcellus sweet spot had a relatively low clay and high silt content that makes it the best, candidate for fracking. This zone had good brittleness and high hydrocarbons content (S1 and S2). At the base of the Marcellus and immediately above the Onondaga Limestone, a very thin zone of extreme ductility occurs, that probably corresponds to a bentonitic ash layer. The combination of detailed lithological analyses with an appraisal of the hydrocarbons within the Marcellus and adjacent Formations, allows their zonation in terms of potential economic productivity and engineering suitability for fracking purposes. An analysis of a core from the Marcellus Formation of Western Pennsylvania was undertaken using 3 laboratory tools; an XRF, SEM with EDX capability and a HAWK pyrolysis instrument. A 4th parameter was porosity measurements from a PHIE and PHIT neutron emitting tool,. Unexpected relationships emerged from a comparison between the various downhole curves. Hydrocarbons that were generated from kerogen pyrolysis (S2) varied directly with the neutron probe's total porosity. Macroporosity (SEM >5 microns) varied more closely with the TOC. Macroporosity also varied with the siliceous microfossil content, particularly radiolaria within the Marcellus and unknown shell hash in the overlying Burkett and paralleled the free silica. The “free oil” S1 showed a similar distribution to the S2 and indicated 3 prospective sweetspots; Lower Marcellus, Upper Marcellus and Burkett. Carbonate horizons showed low porosity, due to the presence of clay. The SEM also showed the limestones were extensively bioturbated, shelly and phosphatic. Pyrolysis showed they had low TOC. The carbonate rich relatively oxidizing paleoenvironment allowed for the presence of burrowing organisms. The rest of the Marcellus seemed to have been deposited under very anoxic conditions and was largely composed of silty clay, siltiest near the base of the formation. The zones of lowest clay content (Middle of the Lower Marcellus "transgressive systems tract") also had highest macroporosity, highest oil content (S1, S2), and probably correspond to the best sweet spot. Organic richness is very good within the Marcellus, ranging between 2 and 12 % TOC and so is the source potential (S2 often greater than 5 mg hydrocarbons/g rock). The Burkett - Tully Limestone often had greater than 2% TOC. Tmax maturity data showed the Marcellus to lie in the condensate/wet gas window (Tmax of 455 – 475 °C). The Lower Marcellus sweet spot had a relatively low clay and high silt content that makes it the best, candidate for fracking. This zone had good brittleness and high hydrocarbons content (S1 and S2). At the base of the Marcellus and immediately above the Onondaga Limestone, a very thin zone of extreme ductility occurs, that probably corresponds to a bentonitic ash layer. The combination of detailed lithological analyses with an appraisal of the hydrocarbons within the Marcellus and adjacent Formations, allows their zonation in terms of potential economic productivity and engineering suitability for fracking purposes. Panel_14952 Panel_14952 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Our understanding of unconventional reservoirs is evolving daily and never at a greater rate than the past 15 years. However, programmed pyrolysis methods developed in the 1970s are still used today to assess the present day organic matter quality and quantity of potential source rocks. More importantly the interpretive guidelines for unconventional reservoirs developed for the Barnett Shale int eh 80s and 90s are still being used to characterize organic matter quality and maturity of nearly all prospective unconventional plays new and old. Recent advancements in pyrolysis technology, manufacturing, training and communications have paved the way for organic screening via pyrolysis on larger numbers of samples with faster turnaround times. The results are now available for critical time sensitive decisions such as where to land a lateral and how to apply customized completions, but also feed development of more models and trend mapping. Investigation of pyrograms which now span a much larger range of organic matter types and maturities has exposed multiple caveats in the traditional pyrolysis method and the interpretive guidelines being applied to liquids rich source rocks. The most problematic of which are attributed to heavy hydrocarbon carryover from S1 to S2 which can complicate kerogen quality assessment, maturity determination and production quantity/quality estimate resulting in potential inconsistencies between maps/models and production. Pyrograms and comparative results from parallel samples run through different pyrolysis methods will be presented for discussion. Modified initial isotherm temperatures designed to volatize a larger range of hydrocarbon without cracking kerogen provide a possible solution to the heavy hydrocarbon carryover issues. Pyrograms generated from both a traditional temperature ramp and a more rapid pyrolysis temperature ramp are presented to fully investigate the effects on the S2 peak geometry/quantification as well as Tmax assessment. Furthermore we attempt to properly address maturity as a function of kerogen quality with several new concepts better using the raw data generated from our modified source rock pyrolysis method. Our understanding of unconventional reservoirs is evolving daily and never at a greater rate than the past 15 years. However, programmed pyrolysis methods developed in the 1970s are still used today to assess the present day organic matter quality and quantity of potential source rocks. More importantly the interpretive guidelines for unconventional reservoirs developed for the Barnett Shale int eh 80s and 90s are still being used to characterize organic matter quality and maturity of nearly all prospective unconventional plays new and old. Recent advancements in pyrolysis technology, manufacturing, training and communications have paved the way for organic screening via pyrolysis on larger numbers of samples with faster turnaround times. The results are now available for critical time sensitive decisions such as where to land a lateral and how to apply customized completions, but also feed development of more models and trend mapping. Investigation of pyrograms which now span a much larger range of organic matter types and maturities has exposed multiple caveats in the traditional pyrolysis method and the interpretive guidelines being applied to liquids rich source rocks. The most problematic of which are attributed to heavy hydrocarbon carryover from S1 to S2 which can complicate kerogen quality assessment, maturity determination and production quantity/quality estimate resulting in potential inconsistencies between maps/models and production. Pyrograms and comparative results from parallel samples run through different pyrolysis methods will be presented for discussion. Modified initial isotherm temperatures designed to volatize a larger range of hydrocarbon without cracking kerogen provide a possible solution to the heavy hydrocarbon carryover issues. Pyrograms generated from both a traditional temperature ramp and a more rapid pyrolysis temperature ramp are presented to fully investigate the effects on the S2 peak geometry/quantification as well as Tmax assessment. Furthermore we attempt to properly address maturity as a function of kerogen quality with several new concepts better using the raw data generated from our modified source rock pyrolysis method. Panel_14942 Panel_14942 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Designing and executing an optimized well completion design is of top priority for operators in unconventional plays. High-resolution wellbore image data is critical in identifying structural features that can significantly impact hydraulic fracturing effectiveness. Quanta-Geo, a new imaging technology, paired with eXpandBG, a well-centric structural modeling workflow, provides a new level of detail in reservoir analysis. Interpretation of Quanta-Geo images can identify, characterize, and map faults, fractures, and rock texture, allowing for smart completion design and, ultimately, increased production. This study focuses on lateral wells drilled into the upper Eagle Ford Shale play in South Texas, USA, where 3D seismic data has been acquired and interpreted. Faults, both regional and sub-seismic scale, are common across the acreage. There is also multiple water bearing zones overlying and underlying the target interval. The key to successful field development in this area is to distinguish which faults may present a hazard while drilling or during the stimulation process. If a wellbore is connected to a water hazard (via fault or hydraulic fracture), it has a high potential for failure. The first two wells in this area were stimulated without detailed analysis of the image logs. The end result was two wells drilled parallel off of the same pad that cost over $6MM each and a) produced with over a 95% water cut and b) failed to meet economics by a significant margin. Subsequent wells used the interpretation of the Quanta-Geo data to optimize the frac design. A significant fault was identified and appeared to be a potential hazard for water influx into the wellbore. This time, the operator attempted to mitigate the risk of water production by implementing a 350 foot safe zone on both sides of the subject fault during the completion and stimulation planning phase. The result for these wells was more positive as both produced at a normal water cut and showed no indication of a connection to water zone. This study provides a clear demonstration of how sub-seismic scale structural features can significantly affect well performance. High resolution image data upscaled to a well-centric structural model is critical to success in these wells. Completion designs that incorporate these models are essential to maximize production. Designing and executing an optimized well completion design is of top priority for operators in unconventional plays. High-resolution wellbore image data is critical in identifying structural features that can significantly impact hydraulic fracturing effectiveness. Quanta-Geo, a new imaging technology, paired with eXpandBG, a well-centric structural modeling workflow, provides a new level of detail in reservoir analysis. Interpretation of Quanta-Geo images can identify, characterize, and map faults, fractures, and rock texture, allowing for smart completion design and, ultimately, increased production. This study focuses on lateral wells drilled into the upper Eagle Ford Shale play in South Texas, USA, where 3D seismic data has been acquired and interpreted. Faults, both regional and sub-seismic scale, are common across the acreage. There is also multiple water bearing zones overlying and underlying the target interval. The key to successful field development in this area is to distinguish which faults may present a hazard while drilling or during the stimulation process. If a wellbore is connected to a water hazard (via fault or hydraulic fracture), it has a high potential for failure. The first two wells in this area were stimulated without detailed analysis of the image logs. The end result was two wells drilled parallel off of the same pad that cost over $6MM each and a) produced with over a 95% water cut and b) failed to meet economics by a significant margin. Subsequent wells used the interpretation of the Quanta-Geo data to optimize the frac design. A significant fault was identified and appeared to be a potential hazard for water influx into the wellbore. This time, the operator attempted to mitigate the risk of water production by implementing a 350 foot safe zone on both sides of the subject fault during the completion and stimulation planning phase. The result for these wells was more positive as both produced at a normal water cut and showed no indication of a connection to water zone. This study provides a clear demonstration of how sub-seismic scale structural features can significantly affect well performance. High resolution image data upscaled to a well-centric structural model is critical to success in these wells. Completion designs that incorporate these models are essential to maximize production. Panel_14944 Panel_14944 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

For a realistic approach of the potential of unconventional reservoirs, it is important to assess the degree of fracturing – both open and healed (cemented) fractures. The standard and most accurate approach is from interpretation of image logs. However, there are many areas where image logs have not been run, although there will probably be an abundance of standard open-hole logs. The procedure described here involves the interpretation of standard open-hole logs and consists of examining rates of change of curve magnitudes with depth. If the change to apparent high porosity cannot be reasonably explained as a consequence of depositional variations, an open fracture is assumed. Conversely, if the change is to low porosity, a healed (cemented) fracture is assumed. All log traces, as well as the caliper and density correction curves are examined. For each log, the interpreter defines a minimum change in curve magnitude from one depth increment to the next. Additionally, a minimum change over a defined depth window is defined. Results of fracture identification from individual logs are stacked to identify potential fracture clusters. By comparing this analysis with image logs over the same intervals, we have found that there is good correlation, especially if clusters occur. It is understood that log resolution does not allow identification of individual fractures. However fracture swarms can be recognized. Examples of the technique from a variety of reservoirs are included. For a realistic approach of the potential of unconventional reservoirs, it is important to assess the degree of fracturing – both open and healed (cemented) fractures. The standard and most accurate approach is from interpretation of image logs. However, there are many areas where image logs have not been run, although there will probably be an abundance of standard open-hole logs. The procedure described here involves the interpretation of standard open-hole logs and consists of examining rates of change of curve magnitudes with depth. If the change to apparent high porosity cannot be reasonably explained as a consequence of depositional variations, an open fracture is assumed. Conversely, if the change is to low porosity, a healed (cemented) fracture is assumed. All log traces, as well as the caliper and density correction curves are examined. For each log, the interpreter defines a minimum change in curve magnitude from one depth increment to the next. Additionally, a minimum change over a defined depth window is defined. Results of fracture identification from individual logs are stacked to identify potential fracture clusters. By comparing this analysis with image logs over the same intervals, we have found that there is good correlation, especially if clusters occur. It is understood that log resolution does not allow identification of individual fractures. However fracture swarms can be recognized. Examples of the technique from a variety of reservoirs are included. Panel_14953 Panel_14953 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Thanks to advances in technology and expertise, shale well drilling times continue to drop and the total drilling cost per well continues to decline. Enhancing this trend of improved drilling efficiency, operators are also developing methods and procedures for improving well stimulation based on local rock characteristics. These “engineered completions” require rock quality data along the lateral in order to be effective. Since open-hole well logs (MWD/LWD) and conventional coring is seldom practical along laterals and there can be a great deal of variability, it is becoming more critical to obtain high quality geologic data from drill cuttings. We will show results of drill cuttings analysis from several hundred samples along both the vertical and horizontal tracts from an Eagle Ford well (EF1). Data collected from drill cuttings samples includes elemental composition and scanning electron microscopy to allow detailed visualization and quantification of pore types and organic material abundance throughout the section. Utilizing cuttings can assist in adjusting the landing (target) zone, adjusting geologic spacing of fracturing zones for well completions, predicting Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR), and comparing results between multiple wells. Well EF1 has data from both a vertical pilot-hole (10 foot intervals) and from the lateral wellbore (30 foot intervals). In all more than 350 sample intervals were analyzed. Specialized sample collection and handling procedures were developed for this project. These procedures helped ensure that adequate and useable samples were collected and that the depth registration was reliable. Analytical results show that lithology variation along the lateral wellbore can be determined from shale cuttings samples. The drill cuttings data has been compared to other data from well logs and whole core and the results are consistent. The data shows that some zones along the lateral were in the targeted strata and others were not. Thanks to advances in technology and expertise, shale well drilling times continue to drop and the total drilling cost per well continues to decline. Enhancing this trend of improved drilling efficiency, operators are also developing methods and procedures for improving well stimulation based on local rock characteristics. These “engineered completions” require rock quality data along the lateral in order to be effective. Since open-hole well logs (MWD/LWD) and conventional coring is seldom practical along laterals and there can be a great deal of variability, it is becoming more critical to obtain high quality geologic data from drill cuttings. We will show results of drill cuttings analysis from several hundred samples along both the vertical and horizontal tracts from an Eagle Ford well (EF1). Data collected from drill cuttings samples includes elemental composition and scanning electron microscopy to allow detailed visualization and quantification of pore types and organic material abundance throughout the section. Utilizing cuttings can assist in adjusting the landing (target) zone, adjusting geologic spacing of fracturing zones for well completions, predicting Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR), and comparing results between multiple wells. Well EF1 has data from both a vertical pilot-hole (10 foot intervals) and from the lateral wellbore (30 foot intervals). In all more than 350 sample intervals were analyzed. Specialized sample collection and handling procedures were developed for this project. These procedures helped ensure that adequate and useable samples were collected and that the depth registration was reliable. Analytical results show that lithology variation along the lateral wellbore can be determined from shale cuttings samples. The drill cuttings data has been compared to other data from well logs and whole core and the results are consistent. The data shows that some zones along the lateral were in the targeted strata and others were not. Panel_14941 Panel_14941 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Wolfcamp shale is an oil-rich source rock in the Delaware Basin being targeted for horizontal drilling. The play exhibits a fairly high degree of heterogeneity in rock characteristics, lithology and natural fractures. Particularly, presence of these natural fractures can indicate potentially better reservoir quality (RQ) as well as provide information for better completion quality (CQ). After drilling several horizontal wells in the Delaware Basin that were not producing uniformly, Endeavor Energy recognized that LWD technology would be required to overcome the geological challenges that were impeding production. Schlumberger implemented MicroScope (Imaging-While-Drilling tool) in some of the exploration wells which provided full borehole coverage electrical images and laterolog resistivity measurements. The recorded mode borehole images were then used to accurately identify different fracture types and orientations for an effective completion strategy. Instead of setting equally spaced fracture stages along the lateral, a better completion design with fewer and more strategically placed stages was achieved. This helped in delivering a successful well by increasing the reservoir contact through stimulating the existing natural fracture network. Since Endeavor started using the MicroScope LWD imaging tool for geosteering and then for fracture detection, they were able to achieve successful drilling operations and completion, while improving recovery. Schlumberger then provided MicroScope HD high-definition imaging-while-drilling service in one of the wells which has identified far more number of fractures, leading to better RQ and CQ analysis. MicroScope HD high-definition imaging-while-drilling service provides borehole images for reservoir description, from structural modeling to sedimentology analysis. This service enables detailed fracture characterization and completion optimization in conductive drilling fluids. The interpretation included full structural feature identification and detailed fracture characterization to identify types of fractures as well as morphology and geometry of each fracture, the fracture density, fracture aperture and fracture distribution along the logged interval. The geological interpretation of the MicroScope HD images revealed the presence of few major open fractures that were likely enhanced during drilling, and a large number of partial discontinuous conductive and resistive fractures. The Wolfcamp shale is an oil-rich source rock in the Delaware Basin being targeted for horizontal drilling. The play exhibits a fairly high degree of heterogeneity in rock characteristics, lithology and natural fractures. Particularly, presence of these natural fractures can indicate potentially better reservoir quality (RQ) as well as provide information for better completion quality (CQ). After drilling several horizontal wells in the Delaware Basin that were not producing uniformly, Endeavor Energy recognized that LWD technology would be required to overcome the geological challenges that were impeding production. Schlumberger implemented MicroScope (Imaging-While-Drilling tool) in some of the exploration wells which provided full borehole coverage electrical images and laterolog resistivity measurements. The recorded mode borehole images were then used to accurately identify different fracture types and orientations for an effective completion strategy. Instead of setting equally spaced fracture stages along the lateral, a better completion design with fewer and more strategically placed stages was achieved. This helped in delivering a successful well by increasing the reservoir contact through stimulating the existing natural fracture network. Since Endeavor started using the MicroScope LWD imaging tool for geosteering and then for fracture detection, they were able to achieve successful drilling operations and completion, while improving recovery. Schlumberger then provided MicroScope HD high-definition imaging-while-drilling service in one of the wells which has identified far more number of fractures, leading to better RQ and CQ analysis. MicroScope HD high-definition imaging-while-drilling service provides borehole images for reservoir description, from structural modeling to sedimentology analysis. This service enables detailed fracture characterization and completion optimization in conductive drilling fluids. The interpretation included full structural feature identification and detailed fracture characterization to identify types of fractures as well as morphology and geometry of each fracture, the fracture density, fracture aperture and fracture distribution along the logged interval. The geological interpretation of the MicroScope HD images revealed the presence of few major open fractures that were likely enhanced during drilling, and a large number of partial discontinuous conductive and resistive fractures. Panel_14945 Panel_14945 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14431 Panel_14431 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Upper Wolfcamp Series (Wolfcampian, Lower Permian) mudrock successions in Delaware Basin vary between silicate- and carbonate (dominated by Fe-dolomite)-rich facies, largely marking depositional responses to sea-level lowstands and highstands, respectively. In a 310-ft (94.5 m) core from Energy Resources No. 1 East Vermejo well (Ward Co. TX), Upper Wolfcamp cycles comprise siliceous-calcareous mudrock couplets. Cyclicity was interpreted from mineralogical calculations using energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements of elemental content. Elemental abundances (Ca, Mg, Si, K) enabled predicting mineralogy based on stoichiometric relationships between elements and dominant minerals (dolomite, calcite, quartz), and from average values of Si and K in published analyses of illite. Core sample spacing for XRF measurements was 2 in (5.1 cm). Six lithofacies were defined on the basis of carbonate/illite/quartz values. Redox-indicative trace metal (Mo, Ni, V, Cr, U) distributions document likely variations in basin circulation of marine water. Measurements and mineralogical interpretations provide: 1) information regarding stratigraphic organization of lithofacies, 2) a stratigraphic framework within which to interpret sea-level variations, 3) insights into ocean-chemistry variations attendant with deposition and organic carbon distribution, and 3) sampling for petrographic and organic matter analyses (TOC, d13CTOC, ?15N) that will address marine chemical processes responsible for organic carbon preservation. Redox-sensitive element concentrations are higher in siliciclastic-dominated intervals and show close relationships with clay-mineral content. These data indicate that anoxia and increased organic carbon preservation were greatest in clay-rich sediments that accumulated during sea-level lowstands when normal-marine water flowing east from the Panthalassa Ocean was inhibited through narrow inter-basin channels or over sills. Upper Wolfcamp Series (Wolfcampian, Lower Permian) mudrock successions in Delaware Basin vary between silicate- and carbonate (dominated by Fe-dolomite)-rich facies, largely marking depositional responses to sea-level lowstands and highstands, respectively. In a 310-ft (94.5 m) core from Energy Resources No. 1 East Vermejo well (Ward Co. TX), Upper Wolfcamp cycles comprise siliceous-calcareous mudrock couplets. Cyclicity was interpreted from mineralogical calculations using energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements of elemental content. Elemental abundances (Ca, Mg, Si, K) enabled predicting mineralogy based on stoichiometric relationships between elements and dominant minerals (dolomite, calcite, quartz), and from average values of Si and K in published analyses of illite. Core sample spacing for XRF measurements was 2 in (5.1 cm). Six lithofacies were defined on the basis of carbonate/illite/quartz values. Redox-indicative trace metal (Mo, Ni, V, Cr, U) distributions document likely variations in basin circulation of marine water. Measurements and mineralogical interpretations provide: 1) information regarding stratigraphic organization of lithofacies, 2) a stratigraphic framework within which to interpret sea-level variations, 3) insights into ocean-chemistry variations attendant with deposition and organic carbon distribution, and 3) sampling for petrographic and organic matter analyses (TOC, d13CTOC, ?15N) that will address marine chemical processes responsible for organic carbon preservation. Redox-sensitive element concentrations are higher in siliciclastic-dominated intervals and show close relationships with clay-mineral content. These data indicate that anoxia and increased organic carbon preservation were greatest in clay-rich sediments that accumulated during sea-level lowstands when normal-marine water flowing east from the Panthalassa Ocean was inhibited through narrow inter-basin channels or over sills. Panel_14969 Panel_14969 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Wireline log and routine core analysis does not resolve the differential reservoir quality in the upper Three Forks reservoirs. This paper demonstrates the value of examining the qualitative geologic data in light of quantitative engineering data to delineate controls on reservoir quality. Five pairs of samples representing differential fluid saturations of several possible reservoir facies were described in core and petrographic thin section. These observations were integrated with routine core analysis, mercury intrusion porosimetry and nitrogen gas adsorption-desorption. Intervals characterized by massive to diffuse lamination fabrics, abundant cements, and relatively large detrital grain sizes correspond to water saturated intervals of less favorable reservoir quality. These features indicate a high primary porosity that early diagenetic fluids favored, resulting in preferential cementation and porosity occlusion. Oil saturated samples with better reservoir quality are associated with heterogeneous, clay mottled to rippled dolomudstones. Flow baffles inherent to these fabrics inhibited early diagenesis resulting in relative porosity preservation compared to more homogeneous intervals. Subtle differences in pore size, shape and interconnectivity result from these geological differences. Permeability is consistently an order of magnitude better in oil saturated samples. Samples with less than 4.5% porosity had the highest tortuosities and were water saturated. Subtle differences such as micro- to nanopore proportions, average pore diameters, and interconnectivity in samples with porosity over 4.5% determined fluid saturations. Samples with very high proportions of nanoporosity had the least tortuous, equidimensional pore systems but remained water saturated due to the very small average pore diameters. Localized conditions including solid reservoir bitumen precipitation and over pressuring due to proximity to source rock may inhibit recovery. Wireline log and routine core analysis does not resolve the differential reservoir quality in the upper Three Forks reservoirs. This paper demonstrates the value of examining the qualitative geologic data in light of quantitative engineering data to delineate controls on reservoir quality. Five pairs of samples representing differential fluid saturations of several possible reservoir facies were described in core and petrographic thin section. These observations were integrated with routine core analysis, mercury intrusion porosimetry and nitrogen gas adsorption-desorption. Intervals characterized by massive to diffuse lamination fabrics, abundant cements, and relatively large detrital grain sizes correspond to water saturated intervals of less favorable reservoir quality. These features indicate a high primary porosity that early diagenetic fluids favored, resulting in preferential cementation and porosity occlusion. Oil saturated samples with better reservoir quality are associated with heterogeneous, clay mottled to rippled dolomudstones. Flow baffles inherent to these fabrics inhibited early diagenesis resulting in relative porosity preservation compared to more homogeneous intervals. Subtle differences in pore size, shape and interconnectivity result from these geological differences. Permeability is consistently an order of magnitude better in oil saturated samples. Samples with less than 4.5% porosity had the highest tortuosities and were water saturated. Subtle differences such as micro- to nanopore proportions, average pore diameters, and interconnectivity in samples with porosity over 4.5% determined fluid saturations. Samples with very high proportions of nanoporosity had the least tortuous, equidimensional pore systems but remained water saturated due to the very small average pore diameters. Localized conditions including solid reservoir bitumen precipitation and over pressuring due to proximity to source rock may inhibit recovery. Panel_14977 Panel_14977 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The assessment methods for estimating recoverable reserves from conventional versus unconventional systems are quite different. The classic yet-to-find method, described in Rose (2001), using analogs and field size distributions may not be applicable in continuous unconventional resources. Although, many unconventional plays show sweetspot and non-sweetspot areas, the petroleum accumulation is largely of continuous character and not confined to distinct trap structures. This study presents an approach for using uncertainty-based assessment methods for estimating the recoverable reserves from the Bakken and Three Forks reservoirs, investigating an area of twelve townships in Dunn County, North Dakota. A number of estimates for either oil in place or technically recoverable reserves have been published. Dow (1974) estimated that 10 billion bbls of oil were expelled from the Bakken shales, assuming an average organic carbon content of 3.8 %. After more data became available, Schmoker and Hester (1983), determined an average TOC of 11 to 12 % and calculated the expelled oil volume to amount to 132 billion bbls. The U.S. Geological Survey first conducted an assessment of technically recoverable reserves from the Middle Bakken reservoir and provided a mean of 3.65 billion bbls oil (Pollastro et al., 2008). Due to the immense drilling activity and expansion of the Bakken play into the Pronghorn and Three Forks units, a re-assessment was conducted by Gaswirth et al. (2013), raising the numbers to 7.4 billion bbls for all reservoirs combined. Not long afterwards, Harold Hamm, chairman of Continental Inc., announced that the recoverable reserves could be as much as 20 billion bbls, assuming continuous improvements in recovery technologies. The principle used in this Bakken case study is built on placing uncertainty on every single parameter influencing the volumetric calculation. Often, critical values such as initial hydrogen index and thus initial TOC are based on educated guessing. The kinetics of petroleum generation not very well understood and are roughly approximated by the Arrhenius equation. In fact, there many values which are not absolutely known. By placing a range of uncertainty on each of the variables, hundreds to thousands of simulations can be run, using either the Monte Carlo or Latin Hypercube sampling methods. The results are displayed in cumulative probability plots and tornado charts, as well as maps of the P10, P50, P90 values. The assessment methods for estimating recoverable reserves from conventional versus unconventional systems are quite different. The classic yet-to-find method, described in Rose (2001), using analogs and field size distributions may not be applicable in continuous unconventional resources. Although, many unconventional plays show sweetspot and non-sweetspot areas, the petroleum accumulation is largely of continuous character and not confined to distinct trap structures. This study presents an approach for using uncertainty-based assessment methods for estimating the recoverable reserves from the Bakken and Three Forks reservoirs, investigating an area of twelve townships in Dunn County, North Dakota. A number of estimates for either oil in place or technically recoverable reserves have been published. Dow (1974) estimated that 10 billion bbls of oil were expelled from the Bakken shales, assuming an average organic carbon content of 3.8 %. After more data became available, Schmoker and Hester (1983), determined an average TOC of 11 to 12 % and calculated the expelled oil volume to amount to 132 billion bbls. The U.S. Geological Survey first conducted an assessment of technically recoverable reserves from the Middle Bakken reservoir and provided a mean of 3.65 billion bbls oil (Pollastro et al., 2008). Due to the immense drilling activity and expansion of the Bakken play into the Pronghorn and Three Forks units, a re-assessment was conducted by Gaswirth et al. (2013), raising the numbers to 7.4 billion bbls for all reservoirs combined. Not long afterwards, Harold Hamm, chairman of Continental Inc., announced that the recoverable reserves could be as much as 20 billion bbls, assuming continuous improvements in recovery technologies. The principle used in this Bakken case study is built on placing uncertainty on every single parameter influencing the volumetric calculation. Often, critical values such as initial hydrogen index and thus initial TOC are based on educated guessing. The kinetics of petroleum generation not very well understood and are roughly approximated by the Arrhenius equation. In fact, there many values which are not absolutely known. By placing a range of uncertainty on each of the variables, hundreds to thousands of simulations can be run, using either the Monte Carlo or Latin Hypercube sampling methods. The results are displayed in cumulative probability plots and tornado charts, as well as maps of the P10, P50, P90 values. Panel_14975 Panel_14975 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Northwest Montana experienced a flurry of exploratory drilling activity between 2010-2013, in an attempt to establish a "Bakken-type" oil resource play in Northwest Montana. Companies were lured to the so-called “Alberta Bakken” oil resource play by the prospect of shallower drilling than North Dakota, and the availability of large lease blocks. Some 40 tests drilled by four companies were scattered over 5000+ square miles in an area of northwest Montana which had few previous deep wells. Many of these tests produced some oil from the Middle Bakken, but all of them have since been plugged or shut-in. In some cases, duplicating the horizontal completion practices perfected in the North Dakota Bakken, have been ineffectual in northwest Montana due to marked changes in the stratigraphy. One company successfully established the first horizontal oil production west of the Sweetgrass Arch from the Devonian Nisku Formation, but the well is currently shut-in. A recent study by Wood McKenzie estimated that the Bakken/Exshaw petroleum system of Montana/Alberta has generated 2.6 billion barrels of oil. If the majority of Bakken-generated oil is no longer in-place, where did it go? Good oil shows from the few scattered deep tests on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, indicate there may be a bypassed pay zone in the Mississippian which occurs in the lower Lodgepole Formation. Some of the Bakken-generated oil may have migrated upward into this tight, fractured, carbonate reservoir. Additional oil may have migrated downward into the Devonian Nisku Formation. Future exploration efforts in northwest Montana should focus on the search for traps containing "migrated" Bakken oil, rather than attempting further completions in the Bakken Formation itself. A Bakken-sourced oil resource play may still be feasible if the right trapping conditions can be found. Northwest Montana experienced a flurry of exploratory drilling activity between 2010-2013, in an attempt to establish a "Bakken-type" oil resource play in Northwest Montana. Companies were lured to the so-called “Alberta Bakken” oil resource play by the prospect of shallower drilling than North Dakota, and the availability of large lease blocks. Some 40 tests drilled by four companies were scattered over 5000+ square miles in an area of northwest Montana which had few previous deep wells. Many of these tests produced some oil from the Middle Bakken, but all of them have since been plugged or shut-in. In some cases, duplicating the horizontal completion practices perfected in the North Dakota Bakken, have been ineffectual in northwest Montana due to marked changes in the stratigraphy. One company successfully established the first horizontal oil production west of the Sweetgrass Arch from the Devonian Nisku Formation, but the well is currently shut-in. A recent study by Wood McKenzie estimated that the Bakken/Exshaw petroleum system of Montana/Alberta has generated 2.6 billion barrels of oil. If the majority of Bakken-generated oil is no longer in-place, where did it go? Good oil shows from the few scattered deep tests on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, indicate there may be a bypassed pay zone in the Mississippian which occurs in the lower Lodgepole Formation. Some of the Bakken-generated oil may have migrated upward into this tight, fractured, carbonate reservoir. Additional oil may have migrated downward into the Devonian Nisku Formation. Future exploration efforts in northwest Montana should focus on the search for traps containing "migrated" Bakken oil, rather than attempting further completions in the Bakken Formation itself. A Bakken-sourced oil resource play may still be feasible if the right trapping conditions can be found. Panel_14972 Panel_14972 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Potential oil-prone areas in the Cane Creek shale, Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation, were identified in the Paradox Basin, southeastern Utah, based on hydrocarbon shows recognized using low-cost epifluorescence (EF) techniques on cuttings and core. The Cane Creek has produced over 5 million BO and 4 BCFG from naturally fractured and overpressured dolomitic siltstones and dolomites interbedded with anhydrite and organic-rich marine shales. Since the 1990s, horizontal drilling has been used to successfully develop the Cane Creek tight oil play. EF microscopy enables better imaging of poorly preserved grains and textures. In addition, EF provides information on diagenesis, pore types, and organic matter (including “live” hydrocarbons) within sedimentary rocks. It is a rapid, non-destructive procedure that uses a petrographic microscope equipped with reflected-light capabilities, a Hg-vapor lamp, and appropriate filtering. Samples from four cores (a producer and three dry holes) provide a template for selection of drill cuttings and calibration of EF shows. Approximately 1800 cutting samples were evaluated from over 30 wells penetrating the Cane Creek shale throughout the region. The wells include four producers, one with cumulative production of >1 million BO from the Cane Creek since its completion in 1962. The dolomites in these cuttings (generally 10 representative samples per depth interval from each well) display intercrystalline porosity, microporosity, and microbial constructional pores. A qualitative visual rating (a range and average) based on EF evaluation was applied to the group of cuttings from each depth interval in each well. The highest average and maximum EF rating from each well were plotted and mapped. As expected, productive wells (fields) are distinguished by their generally higher EF ratings. However, an area of moderate fluorescence (indicating probable capacity of some oil production if there is adequate porosity and permeability) is indicated within the lower Cane Creek shale in the central part of the southwestern Paradox fold and fault belt whereas the northeastern part shows a regional trend of low EF. This implies that hydrocarbon migration in Cane Creek dolomite beds was along regional northwest-trending faults and fracture zones, and created a potential oil-prone area that to date is relatively untested. Potential oil-prone areas in the Cane Creek shale, Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation, were identified in the Paradox Basin, southeastern Utah, based on hydrocarbon shows recognized using low-cost epifluorescence (EF) techniques on cuttings and core. The Cane Creek has produced over 5 million BO and 4 BCFG from naturally fractured and overpressured dolomitic siltstones and dolomites interbedded with anhydrite and organic-rich marine shales. Since the 1990s, horizontal drilling has been used to successfully develop the Cane Creek tight oil play. EF microscopy enables better imaging of poorly preserved grains and textures. In addition, EF provides information on diagenesis, pore types, and organic matter (including “live” hydrocarbons) within sedimentary rocks. It is a rapid, non-destructive procedure that uses a petrographic microscope equipped with reflected-light capabilities, a Hg-vapor lamp, and appropriate filtering. Samples from four cores (a producer and three dry holes) provide a template for selection of drill cuttings and calibration of EF shows. Approximately 1800 cutting samples were evaluated from over 30 wells penetrating the Cane Creek shale throughout the region. The wells include four producers, one with cumulative production of >1 million BO from the Cane Creek since its completion in 1962. The dolomites in these cuttings (generally 10 representative samples per depth interval from each well) display intercrystalline porosity, microporosity, and microbial constructional pores. A qualitative visual rating (a range and average) based on EF evaluation was applied to the group of cuttings from each depth interval in each well. The highest average and maximum EF rating from each well were plotted and mapped. As expected, productive wells (fields) are distinguished by their generally higher EF ratings. However, an area of moderate fluorescence (indicating probable capacity of some oil production if there is adequate porosity and permeability) is indicated within the lower Cane Creek shale in the central part of the southwestern Paradox fold and fault belt whereas the northeastern part shows a regional trend of low EF. This implies that hydrocarbon migration in Cane Creek dolomite beds was along regional northwest-trending faults and fracture zones, and created a potential oil-prone area that to date is relatively untested. Panel_14979 Panel_14979 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The unconventional, light tight oil halo play in the Upper Raven River Member of the Cardium Formation in the Garrington Field spans roughly 330 square kilometers. The sandstone reservoir is an 8 to 10 m thick, offshore to lower shorface deposit that is highly heterogeneous due to extensive mud laminations, intense bioturbation, and diagenesis that create flow barriers. Core plugs and limited full diameter porosity and permeability values from the Upper Raven River Member reflects a mean porosity value of 9.05% with values ranging from 1% to 25.4%, and a mean permeability value of 21.47 mD with values ranging from 0.01mD to 696 mD. Although possessing good reservoir properties, production from vertical wells is uneconomical because hydrocarbons in the reservoir are mainly stored within isolated, porous sand filled burrows, sand lenses and within micro-porous, authigenic clay particles, resulting in highly tortuous flow paths. Since 2010, horizontal multi-stage fractured wells have unlocked this large resource play, but production rates and cumulative oil and gas production significantly changes laterally with varying pay thickness across the study area. The correlation between cumulative production and net pay is poor, and therefore production in areas with similar porosity and permeability are different. Production rates in the Raven River Member are not only influenced by facies distribution or diagenesis alone, but more so by a combination of sedimentology and pressure. There are similarities in the facies distribution in the study area, but production rates generally increase with increasing pressure, from east to west. After 12 months of production, horizontal wells in lower pressurized areas to the east have lower production rates ranging from 15 to 53 bopd of oil and 40 to 470 mcf/day of gas compared to higher pressurized areas to the west, where rates range from 20 to 80 bopd of oil and 40 to 260 mcf/day of gas. The unconventional, light tight oil halo play in the Upper Raven River Member of the Cardium Formation in the Garrington Field spans roughly 330 square kilometers. The sandstone reservoir is an 8 to 10 m thick, offshore to lower shorface deposit that is highly heterogeneous due to extensive mud laminations, intense bioturbation, and diagenesis that create flow barriers. Core plugs and limited full diameter porosity and permeability values from the Upper Raven River Member reflects a mean porosity value of 9.05% with values ranging from 1% to 25.4%, and a mean permeability value of 21.47 mD with values ranging from 0.01mD to 696 mD. Although possessing good reservoir properties, production from vertical wells is uneconomical because hydrocarbons in the reservoir are mainly stored within isolated, porous sand filled burrows, sand lenses and within micro-porous, authigenic clay particles, resulting in highly tortuous flow paths. Since 2010, horizontal multi-stage fractured wells have unlocked this large resource play, but production rates and cumulative oil and gas production significantly changes laterally with varying pay thickness across the study area. The correlation between cumulative production and net pay is poor, and therefore production in areas with similar porosity and permeability are different. Production rates in the Raven River Member are not only influenced by facies distribution or diagenesis alone, but more so by a combination of sedimentology and pressure. There are similarities in the facies distribution in the study area, but production rates generally increase with increasing pressure, from east to west. After 12 months of production, horizontal wells in lower pressurized areas to the east have lower production rates ranging from 15 to 53 bopd of oil and 40 to 470 mcf/day of gas compared to higher pressurized areas to the west, where rates range from 20 to 80 bopd of oil and 40 to 260 mcf/day of gas. Panel_14966 Panel_14966 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is assessing the undiscovered, technically recoverable oil and gas resources of the Permian Basin, with a specific focus on continuous (unconventional) resources. The most recent USGS assessment of the basin, which concentrated mainly on conventional resources, was completed in 2007. The Permian Basin has had a major upswing in production in recent years, largely due to the increased exploration and development of unconventional plays. Horizontal drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing is increasingly being used to exploit oil and gas accumulations in multiple stratigraphic horizons; a major challenge for the upcoming USGS assessment will be to differentiate comingled production. Following decades of vertical drilling and completions, more than 2,000 horizontal wells have targeted the Wolfcamp Shale in the past 10 years in the Midland and Delaware sub-basins of the Permian Basin. The Wolfcamp Shale occurs at a depth of 7,000 to 8,500 feet, and contains a mixed lithology system that is composed of sand, shale, and carbonate ranging in thickness from 800 to 2,000 feet. Total organic carbon ranges from 2 to 10% weight percent and porosity ranges from 4 to 12%, with low permeability. Initial estimated ultimate recovery calculations display a wide range for Wolfcamp horizontal wells. In addition, the informal Cline shale (sometimes referred to as the lower Wolfcamp) has also recently gained exploration momentum in the Midland Basin. The Cline shale occurs at a depth greater than 9,000 feet deep and covers approximately 10,000 square miles. It is an organic rich shale with interbedded sand and silt and ranges in thickness from 200 to 550 feet. Total organic carbon ranges from 1 to 8 weight percent and porosity ranges from 6 to 12%. Activity in the Cline shale is centered in Glasscock, Andrews, Sterling, Reagan, and Mitchell Counties, Texas, and more than 100 wells have targeted the Cline shale. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is assessing the undiscovered, technically recoverable oil and gas resources of the Permian Basin, with a specific focus on continuous (unconventional) resources. The most recent USGS assessment of the basin, which concentrated mainly on conventional resources, was completed in 2007. The Permian Basin has had a major upswing in production in recent years, largely due to the increased exploration and development of unconventional plays. Horizontal drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing is increasingly being used to exploit oil and gas accumulations in multiple stratigraphic horizons; a major challenge for the upcoming USGS assessment will be to differentiate comingled production. Following decades of vertical drilling and completions, more than 2,000 horizontal wells have targeted the Wolfcamp Shale in the past 10 years in the Midland and Delaware sub-basins of the Permian Basin. The Wolfcamp Shale occurs at a depth of 7,000 to 8,500 feet, and contains a mixed lithology system that is composed of sand, shale, and carbonate ranging in thickness from 800 to 2,000 feet. Total organic carbon ranges from 2 to 10% weight percent and porosity ranges from 4 to 12%, with low permeability. Initial estimated ultimate recovery calculations display a wide range for Wolfcamp horizontal wells. In addition, the informal Cline shale (sometimes referred to as the lower Wolfcamp) has also recently gained exploration momentum in the Midland Basin. The Cline shale occurs at a depth greater than 9,000 feet deep and covers approximately 10,000 square miles. It is an organic rich shale with interbedded sand and silt and ranges in thickness from 200 to 550 feet. Total organic carbon ranges from 1 to 8 weight percent and porosity ranges from 6 to 12%. Activity in the Cline shale is centered in Glasscock, Andrews, Sterling, Reagan, and Mitchell Counties, Texas, and more than 100 wells have targeted the Cline shale. Panel_14976 Panel_14976 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

There has been a paradigm shift in the appraisal strategy adopted by Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) to assess the hydrocarbon potential of the low permeability (typically less than 0.01mD) deep unconventional reservoirs, which are expected to significantly contribute in meeting the long term light oil and gas production requirements of the State of Kuwait. These unconventional reservoirs of Oxfordian – Callovian age occurring at depth range of 14000’ – 15000’ in the northern part of Kuwait comprise naturally fractured tight carbonate reservoir unit (average 45’ thickness) overlying organically rich (Kerogen) resource play unit (average 50’ thickness) which is underlain by a unit (average 40’ thickness) consisting of alternations of tight limestone and organically rich argillaceous limestone layers. The operational area encompasses approximately 1800 sq.km covering six fields. From a reservoir understanding stand point these units are immature due to limited successful long term tests. Commercial production from these reservoirs can only be achieved through intersection of natural fractures or through hydraulic fracturing. Incorporating the data obtained from about 80 vertical/deviated well penetrations, comprehensive and integrated studies have been carried out over the past three years resulting in high grading of the areas and identification of “Sweet spots” for locating the initial horizontal appraisal wells. The horizontal well profiles have been carefully worked out taking into consideration the drilled well data, current understanding of the Structural evolution of north Kuwait structures, regional stress field and local stress variations derived from extensive core / image log data, inferences drawn from the multiple seismic attributes generated at close to the top of the reservoir. KOC has embarked on an aggressive horizontal well drilling campaign to assess the production potential of these Unconventional reservoirs. Appraisal of one of the reservoirs met with significant success as demonstrated through the first horizontal well. Currently a number of horizontal wells are in various stages of drilling / testing and completion targeting these unconventional reservoirs in different fields. There has been a paradigm shift in the appraisal strategy adopted by Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) to assess the hydrocarbon potential of the low permeability (typically less than 0.01mD) deep unconventional reservoirs, which are expected to significantly contribute in meeting the long term light oil and gas production requirements of the State of Kuwait. These unconventional reservoirs of Oxfordian – Callovian age occurring at depth range of 14000’ – 15000’ in the northern part of Kuwait comprise naturally fractured tight carbonate reservoir unit (average 45’ thickness) overlying organically rich (Kerogen) resource play unit (average 50’ thickness) which is underlain by a unit (average 40’ thickness) consisting of alternations of tight limestone and organically rich argillaceous limestone layers. The operational area encompasses approximately 1800 sq.km covering six fields. From a reservoir understanding stand point these units are immature due to limited successful long term tests. Commercial production from these reservoirs can only be achieved through intersection of natural fractures or through hydraulic fracturing. Incorporating the data obtained from about 80 vertical/deviated well penetrations, comprehensive and integrated studies have been carried out over the past three years resulting in high grading of the areas and identification of “Sweet spots” for locating the initial horizontal appraisal wells. The horizontal well profiles have been carefully worked out taking into consideration the drilled well data, current understanding of the Structural evolution of north Kuwait structures, regional stress field and local stress variations derived from extensive core / image log data, inferences drawn from the multiple seismic attributes generated at close to the top of the reservoir. KOC has embarked on an aggressive horizontal well drilling campaign to assess the production potential of these Unconventional reservoirs. Appraisal of one of the reservoirs met with significant success as demonstrated through the first horizontal well. Currently a number of horizontal wells are in various stages of drilling / testing and completion targeting these unconventional reservoirs in different fields. Panel_14970 Panel_14970 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Bioturbated sediments representing distal expressions of paralic depositional environments are increasingly being exploited for oil in the supergiant Cardium Formation reservoir, Pembina Field, Alberta, Canada. These sedimentary strata were previously considered unproductive due to the limited vertical and horizontal connectivity between permeable beds. In these “tight oil” plays (0.1 – 10 md), sand-filled burrows connect bioturbated and parallel laminated sandstone beds creating hydrocarbon migration pathways exploitable via horizontal drilling and multi-stage fracking. As the exploitation of bioturbated strata progresses, waterflooding is being considered, although the response to enhanced oil recovery schemes in unconventional plays is limited. To assess the viability of waterflooding the bioturbated strata of the Cardium Formation, a regional-scale core-based study was undertaken. Thirty-eight cores were logged and seven lithofacies identified, including four bioturbated facies that range from 5-75% total sandstone and siltstone content. An additional 629 Pressure Decay Profile Permeametry (microperm) measurements were acquired from three of the bioturbated facies in eleven wells distributed throughout the study area. Microperm values enable correlation of bulk permeability from plugs and full diameter samples to the heterogeneous permeability distributions in intensely bioturbated strata. Bulk and microperm permeability data are graphically compared, and permeability distributions are mapped across the field. Using isopach thicknesses of bioturbated facies, production data, and permeability data, “sweet spots” are identified for placement of effective waterfloods. Production information for recently drilled horizontal wells in the Pembina field demonstrate that bioturbated muddy sandstones and sandy mudstones in paralic environments can be economically exploited when sand-filled burrows provide connectivity between sand beds. However, well performance within these poorly understood unconventional tight oil plays can better be predicted with an in depth characterization of their facies and complex permeability heterogeneities. Based on our results, it is clear that micropermeability analysis can be effectively employed to differentiate between economic and sub-economic plays, identify areas with high effective permeability, and to high-grade areas for enhanced oil recovery schemes. Bioturbated sediments representing distal expressions of paralic depositional environments are increasingly being exploited for oil in the supergiant Cardium Formation reservoir, Pembina Field, Alberta, Canada. These sedimentary strata were previously considered unproductive due to the limited vertical and horizontal connectivity between permeable beds. In these “tight oil” plays (0.1 – 10 md), sand-filled burrows connect bioturbated and parallel laminated sandstone beds creating hydrocarbon migration pathways exploitable via horizontal drilling and multi-stage fracking. As the exploitation of bioturbated strata progresses, waterflooding is being considered, although the response to enhanced oil recovery schemes in unconventional plays is limited. To assess the viability of waterflooding the bioturbated strata of the Cardium Formation, a regional-scale core-based study was undertaken. Thirty-eight cores were logged and seven lithofacies identified, including four bioturbated facies that range from 5-75% total sandstone and siltstone content. An additional 629 Pressure Decay Profile Permeametry (microperm) measurements were acquired from three of the bioturbated facies in eleven wells distributed throughout the study area. Microperm values enable correlation of bulk permeability from plugs and full diameter samples to the heterogeneous permeability distributions in intensely bioturbated strata. Bulk and microperm permeability data are graphically compared, and permeability distributions are mapped across the field. Using isopach thicknesses of bioturbated facies, production data, and permeability data, “sweet spots” are identified for placement of effective waterfloods. Production information for recently drilled horizontal wells in the Pembina field demonstrate that bioturbated muddy sandstones and sandy mudstones in paralic environments can be economically exploited when sand-filled burrows provide connectivity between sand beds. However, well performance within these poorly understood unconventional tight oil plays can better be predicted with an in depth characterization of their facies and complex permeability heterogeneities. Based on our results, it is clear that micropermeability analysis can be effectively employed to differentiate between economic and sub-economic plays, identify areas with high effective permeability, and to high-grade areas for enhanced oil recovery schemes. Panel_14978 Panel_14978 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Upper Cretaceous Codell Sandstone is a major pay in the giant Wattenberg Field of the Denver Basin. Vertical well completions in the Codell date back to 1981. The vertical wells have a history of successful hydraulic refracturing. New horizontal wells (2011 to P) with initial production of 100 to 700 BOPD (GOR ~10,000 cf/bbl) indicate substantial remaining reserves in the formation. Geologic factors important for production include: proximity to thermally mature source beds; thickness; geothermal gradients; pressure gradients; fault bounded reservoir compartments; gas-oil ratios; sufficient reservoir quality (phi-h). The Codell in Wattenberg is characterized by low porosity (<10%) and permeability (< 0.1 md). The Codell is 5 to 20 ft thick across the Wattenberg Field and has formation pressure gradients that range from 0.45 to 0.66 psi/ft. Geothermal gradients range from 1.8 to 2.5oF/100 ft. The highest GORs in the field correspond to the highest geothermal gradients. The sandstone is very fine to fine grained and bioturbated. Thin (< one ft thick) hummocky cross stratified beds are present in the Codell. Depositional environment is interpreted to be a shallow marine shelf setting. Clay content within the pay interval is approximately 20% and consists of 40-45% mixed layer illite-smectite, 30-40% illite, 10-30% chlorite, and up to 7% glauconite. The Codell is a low-resistivity, low-contrast pay. The fault-bounded reservoir compartments form mainly from a well-developed polygonal fault system. Polygons are generally about 1.5 square miles in size. The orientation of the polygons is influenced by pre-existing basement fault systems. The Codell unconformably overlies the Fairport chalk member of the Carlile Formation and is unconformably overlain by either the Juana Lopez or the Fort Hays Limestone Member of the Niobrara Formation. The Upper Cretaceous Codell Sandstone is a major pay in the giant Wattenberg Field of the Denver Basin. Vertical well completions in the Codell date back to 1981. The vertical wells have a history of successful hydraulic refracturing. New horizontal wells (2011 to P) with initial production of 100 to 700 BOPD (GOR ~10,000 cf/bbl) indicate substantial remaining reserves in the formation. Geologic factors important for production include: proximity to thermally mature source beds; thickness; geothermal gradients; pressure gradients; fault bounded reservoir compartments; gas-oil ratios; sufficient reservoir quality (phi-h). The Codell in Wattenberg is characterized by low porosity (<10%) and permeability (< 0.1 md). The Codell is 5 to 20 ft thick across the Wattenberg Field and has formation pressure gradients that range from 0.45 to 0.66 psi/ft. Geothermal gradients range from 1.8 to 2.5oF/100 ft. The highest GORs in the field correspond to the highest geothermal gradients. The sandstone is very fine to fine grained and bioturbated. Thin (< one ft thick) hummocky cross stratified beds are present in the Codell. Depositional environment is interpreted to be a shallow marine shelf setting. Clay content within the pay interval is approximately 20% and consists of 40-45% mixed layer illite-smectite, 30-40% illite, 10-30% chlorite, and up to 7% glauconite. The Codell is a low-resistivity, low-contrast pay. The fault-bounded reservoir compartments form mainly from a well-developed polygonal fault system. Polygons are generally about 1.5 square miles in size. The orientation of the polygons is influenced by pre-existing basement fault systems. The Codell unconformably overlies the Fairport chalk member of the Carlile Formation and is unconformably overlain by either the Juana Lopez or the Fort Hays Limestone Member of the Niobrara Formation. Panel_14974 Panel_14974 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Viewfield Pool in SE Saskatchewan is the largest Bakken pool on the Canadian side of the Williston Basin, covering approximately 850 sections (square miles). The study area encompasses an area from TWP5 to 14, R3-13W2. The late Devonian early Mississippian Bakken Formation consists of three members in this area, including the productive middle member, which is dominated by mixed siliciclastic and dolomitic silt to very fine grained sandstone which occur between the upper and lower organic rich shale members. The shale members are thermally immature indicating the resource within the Viewfield Pool has migrated from deeper parts of the Williston Basin to the south. Despite a relatively simple well log signature, the depositional history is quite complex, resulting in a great degree of reservoir heterogeneity within the Middle Bakken Member. Detailed core analysis reveals nine lithofacies present in the Viewfield Pool area. These facies are grouped into four distinct facies associations that can be recognized on petrophysical logs and correlated across the study area. A high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework was established and four systems tracts are clearly identified. The lateral distribution of these systems tracts and associated facies, along with abundant production data suggest a simple stratigraphic pinch out of the high stand systems tract to be responsible for trapping oil in this pool, solidifying interpretations from previous regional studies. Furthermore, a detailed geochemical study using an Olympus X-5000 portable X-Ray Florescence (XRF) instrument was conducted on over 1800 samples from 30 cores within the Viewfield area. XRF analysis demonstrates the facies associations are geochemically and therefore mineralogically distinct. In particular, silica (Si), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), zirconium (Zr), and rubidium (Rb) exhibit distinct clusters of data on bivariate plots that differentiate facies associations and even individual facies, thus further supporting the stratigraphic model. A cross plot of calcium content (normalized to silica) and porosity demonstrates a very strong inverse correlation, likely related to the varying degrees of carbonate cementation observed within the reservoir. The Viewfield Pool in SE Saskatchewan is the largest Bakken pool on the Canadian side of the Williston Basin, covering approximately 850 sections (square miles). The study area encompasses an area from TWP5 to 14, R3-13W2. The late Devonian early Mississippian Bakken Formation consists of three members in this area, including the productive middle member, which is dominated by mixed siliciclastic and dolomitic silt to very fine grained sandstone which occur between the upper and lower organic rich shale members. The shale members are thermally immature indicating the resource within the Viewfield Pool has migrated from deeper parts of the Williston Basin to the south. Despite a relatively simple well log signature, the depositional history is quite complex, resulting in a great degree of reservoir heterogeneity within the Middle Bakken Member. Detailed core analysis reveals nine lithofacies present in the Viewfield Pool area. These facies are grouped into four distinct facies associations that can be recognized on petrophysical logs and correlated across the study area. A high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework was established and four systems tracts are clearly identified. The lateral distribution of these systems tracts and associated facies, along with abundant production data suggest a simple stratigraphic pinch out of the high stand systems tract to be responsible for trapping oil in this pool, solidifying interpretations from previous regional studies. Furthermore, a detailed geochemical study using an Olympus X-5000 portable X-Ray Florescence (XRF) instrument was conducted on over 1800 samples from 30 cores within the Viewfield area. XRF analysis demonstrates the facies associations are geochemically and therefore mineralogically distinct. In particular, silica (Si), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), zirconium (Zr), and rubidium (Rb) exhibit distinct clusters of data on bivariate plots that differentiate facies associations and even individual facies, thus further supporting the stratigraphic model. A cross plot of calcium content (normalized to silica) and porosity demonstrates a very strong inverse correlation, likely related to the varying degrees of carbonate cementation observed within the reservoir. Panel_14973 Panel_14973 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14437 Panel_14437 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

As our industry transitions to a dependence on the more costly unconventional reservoirs, we strive to find new and more efficient ways to produce from those reservoirs. There has been much focus on drilling and hydraulic fracturing technologies, but what about identifying natural fractures? It is well known that natural fractures exist in the producing zones. It is also well known that only about twenty percent of the fraced area actually produces. If we, as an industry, were better able to identify the naturally fractured zones – we would be able to focus on that twenty percent of producing zones. Currently, the industry uses acoustic logging or imaging to infer or find fractured zones. Unfortunately, however, the move to unconventional reservoirs has brought shortcomings in those techniques to the forefront. For images, widespread use of oil-based mud and the common practice of drilling high angle wells render image data mostly unusable. For shear wave anisotropy, fractures are simply inferred and, for many reasons, that inference cannot be relied on, particularly in unconventional reservoirs. Perhaps imaging and shear wave anisotropy need to make way for different processing techniques. Furthermore, present day tools are only able to detect anisotropy when logged sections are more than five percent anisotropic, leaving the subtle fracture systems undetected. For this last issue, we need look no further than seismic and microseismic techniques for guidance. Due to issues with signal attenuation and a high signal-to-noise ratio, seismic has long used several techniques, such as stacking, to improve results and amplify anomalies. In this discussion, we explore how we have adopted techniques from seismic and microseismic to provide useful and informative results on fractures creating a new processing technique for acoustic logging. As our industry transitions to a dependence on the more costly unconventional reservoirs, we strive to find new and more efficient ways to produce from those reservoirs. There has been much focus on drilling and hydraulic fracturing technologies, but what about identifying natural fractures? It is well known that natural fractures exist in the producing zones. It is also well known that only about twenty percent of the fraced area actually produces. If we, as an industry, were better able to identify the naturally fractured zones – we would be able to focus on that twenty percent of producing zones. Currently, the industry uses acoustic logging or imaging to infer or find fractured zones. Unfortunately, however, the move to unconventional reservoirs has brought shortcomings in those techniques to the forefront. For images, widespread use of oil-based mud and the common practice of drilling high angle wells render image data mostly unusable. For shear wave anisotropy, fractures are simply inferred and, for many reasons, that inference cannot be relied on, particularly in unconventional reservoirs. Perhaps imaging and shear wave anisotropy need to make way for different processing techniques. Furthermore, present day tools are only able to detect anisotropy when logged sections are more than five percent anisotropic, leaving the subtle fracture systems undetected. For this last issue, we need look no further than seismic and microseismic techniques for guidance. Due to issues with signal attenuation and a high signal-to-noise ratio, seismic has long used several techniques, such as stacking, to improve results and amplify anomalies. In this discussion, we explore how we have adopted techniques from seismic and microseismic to provide useful and informative results on fractures creating a new processing technique for acoustic logging. Panel_15027 Panel_15027 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Geochemical data is not commonly used in the reconstruction of ancient depositional environment because a lot of valuable information may be lost during the laboratary chemical analysis. Here we present one case study of paleoenvironmental reconstruction and sequence stratigraphic analysis using primarily element geochemical analysis in the Pear River Mouth Basin, China. Forty-three mudstone samples and 37 carbonate samples from 10 wells of Tertiary Zhuhai Formation (paleogene) to Hanjiang formation (Neogene) of Pearl River Mouth Basin have been tested for C, O isotopic and other geochemical analysis. The results show that the paleoclimate became more arid from Zhuhai stage to Hanjiang stage of this area, and the palaeosalinity increased from Zhuhai to Hanjiang formation. Paleoenvironment in Zhuhai stage is mainly oxidized, but became reductive during Zhujiang and Hanjiang stages. The paleosalinity increased during early and then decreased at the late stage of Zhujiang period. The paleotemperature of sea water was between 18-24degree Celsius, varied in the same tendency as the paleosalinity of this area. The paleo-sea level rised and then falled from the early to the late during this period. The paleosalinity, the paleotemperature, and the paleo-sea level reached to their highest value at the time of NSQ3 during Zhujiang period. The values of 1000×Sr/Ca, V/Cr, 100×(MgO/Al2O3), Sr/Ba, CIA , and MgO/CaO reveal that the water depth, the paleosalinity of the sea, and the paleoclimate of the source areas are variable at different parts of the basin. The paleoenvironmental condition changed from oxidizd during Zhuhai period to reductive during the period of Zhujiang and Hanjiang. Elemental Fe and Al tend to be rich on the sequence boundaries and are mainly oxidized in northern Baiyun Depression of the Basin. The ratio of Th/U is high and the ratio of Sr/Ca is low. The values of Th/U, Cr/V, Co/Ni, Sr/Ba and ?(Ce) increased gradually during the sea-level lowstnad (LST) and decreased gradually during transgression (TST), reaching their minimum at the maximum flooding surface and then gradually increased during the sea-level highstand (HST). The values of Mn/Fe, Mn/Ti, Sr/Ca, ?REE, and (La/Ce)N decreased gradually during the sea-level lowstand (LST) and increased gradually during transgression (TST), reaching their maximum at the maximum flooding surface and then decreased gradually during the sea-level highstand (HST). Geochemical data is not commonly used in the reconstruction of ancient depositional environment because a lot of valuable information may be lost during the laboratary chemical analysis. Here we present one case study of paleoenvironmental reconstruction and sequence stratigraphic analysis using primarily element geochemical analysis in the Pear River Mouth Basin, China. Forty-three mudstone samples and 37 carbonate samples from 10 wells of Tertiary Zhuhai Formation (paleogene) to Hanjiang formation (Neogene) of Pearl River Mouth Basin have been tested for C, O isotopic and other geochemical analysis. The results show that the paleoclimate became more arid from Zhuhai stage to Hanjiang stage of this area, and the palaeosalinity increased from Zhuhai to Hanjiang formation. Paleoenvironment in Zhuhai stage is mainly oxidized, but became reductive during Zhujiang and Hanjiang stages. The paleosalinity increased during early and then decreased at the late stage of Zhujiang period. The paleotemperature of sea water was between 18-24degree Celsius, varied in the same tendency as the paleosalinity of this area. The paleo-sea level rised and then falled from the early to the late during this period. The paleosalinity, the paleotemperature, and the paleo-sea level reached to their highest value at the time of NSQ3 during Zhujiang period. The values of 1000×Sr/Ca, V/Cr, 100×(MgO/Al2O3), Sr/Ba, CIA , and MgO/CaO reveal that the water depth, the paleosalinity of the sea, and the paleoclimate of the source areas are variable at different parts of the basin. The paleoenvironmental condition changed from oxidizd during Zhuhai period to reductive during the period of Zhujiang and Hanjiang. Elemental Fe and Al tend to be rich on the sequence boundaries and are mainly oxidized in northern Baiyun Depression of the Basin. The ratio of Th/U is high and the ratio of Sr/Ca is low. The values of Th/U, Cr/V, Co/Ni, Sr/Ba and ?(Ce) increased gradually during the sea-level lowstnad (LST) and decreased gradually during transgression (TST), reaching their minimum at the maximum flooding surface and then gradually increased during the sea-level highstand (HST). The values of Mn/Fe, Mn/Ti, Sr/Ca, ?REE, and (La/Ce)N decreased gradually during the sea-level lowstand (LST) and increased gradually during transgression (TST), reaching their maximum at the maximum flooding surface and then decreased gradually during the sea-level highstand (HST). Panel_15030 Panel_15030 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

With an estimated total reserve of more than 650 million barrels, South JinZhou25-1 Field is the first and largest offshore fractured metamorphic granite buried hill reservoir that has been brought into production in the Bohai Bay Basin, Eastern China. The reservoir quality and production mainly rely on the complex fracture network. Thus, a deep understanding of fracture distribution and connectivity is crucial to the efficient development of the field. The aim of this paper is to predict the fracture distribution and its compartmentalization with core, well logging and 3D seismic data. Core observation and FMI interpretation show that the buried hill reservoir mainly developed tectonic fractures with apertures between 0.5mm-1mm and tilt angles between 65°-85°. The dominant fracture orientations can be grouped into two directions, that is, NE-SW and NW-SE. Most favorable zones for fracture development, within 100 meters from the top of the buried hill, are determined with conventional logs calibrated by core and FMI. Anomalies on seismic attributes and S-wave impedance have been successfully used to predict horizontal fracture distribution within the buried hill reservoir, which indicates that fractures mainly occurred at paleo-topographic highs and in areas where the fault density is above 2 km/km2. Thus, fracture formation is believed to be affected by faults and paleo-topography. The insight of fracture characterization of the buried hill reservoir makes it possible to optimize the well locations, reduce the risk of well drilling and improve the efficiency of the development in the field. With an estimated total reserve of more than 650 million barrels, South JinZhou25-1 Field is the first and largest offshore fractured metamorphic granite buried hill reservoir that has been brought into production in the Bohai Bay Basin, Eastern China. The reservoir quality and production mainly rely on the complex fracture network. Thus, a deep understanding of fracture distribution and connectivity is crucial to the efficient development of the field. The aim of this paper is to predict the fracture distribution and its compartmentalization with core, well logging and 3D seismic data. Core observation and FMI interpretation show that the buried hill reservoir mainly developed tectonic fractures with apertures between 0.5mm-1mm and tilt angles between 65°-85°. The dominant fracture orientations can be grouped into two directions, that is, NE-SW and NW-SE. Most favorable zones for fracture development, within 100 meters from the top of the buried hill, are determined with conventional logs calibrated by core and FMI. Anomalies on seismic attributes and S-wave impedance have been successfully used to predict horizontal fracture distribution within the buried hill reservoir, which indicates that fractures mainly occurred at paleo-topographic highs and in areas where the fault density is above 2 km/km². Thus, fracture formation is believed to be affected by faults and paleo-topography. The insight of fracture characterization of the buried hill reservoir makes it possible to optimize the well locations, reduce the risk of well drilling and improve the efficiency of the development in the field. Panel_15028 Panel_15028 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fault and its internal structure have great influences on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in faulted basins, and the mechanism of hydrocarbon migration along fault zones is a difficulty in petroleum geology. Several fault asphalt zones were found in Dongying Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, which implies that they were once the place for huge hydrocarbon migration and accumulation, and had a firm connection with fault cavities. Larger growth-faults are capable to form bigger cavities along fault zone due to differential deformation and displacement of the two plates during the active faulting period. The characteristics of fault cavities mainly depend upon stress state, lithology, and the shape of fault plane. Areas of high irregularity of the faullt plane being more favorable for the occurrence of fault cavities. The fault cavities act as transfer stations of hydrocarbon migration. When the fault is active, fault cavities will be preferential migration channels and superior accumulation space due to temporary low pressure, and once hydrocarbon migrates into the cavities, light components leak firstly, leaving the remains of heavy residue such as asphalts. According to previous study and outcrop observations, fault zones can be divided into two structural units which are damage zone (sliding breaking zone) and induced fracture zone. The two units are obviously different in mircro-structure, filling material and physical property which leads to the difference in logging response and transporting ability. Using parallel comparison of single well and crosswise comparison between wells, the influences of lithology on logging data can be removed when distinguishing the fault zone from logging data. A well drilling into fault zone and a nearby well out of the fault zone were chosen to carry out the parallel comparison in this study. The two wells have similar sedimentary environment and post-deposition process at the same depth, indicating they should have the same logging response primarily. Thus, the differences in logging response can be used to identify fault zones. Single well crosswise comparison is to compare induced fracture zone, damage zone and original rock zone of a single well drilling into fault zone to highlight the fault zone in logging response. The study shows that the damage zone has the characteristics of low AC (Sonic Logging), low CNL, high DEN while the induced fracture zone has the characteristics of high AC, high CNL and low DEN. Quantitative analyses are conducted on internal structures to classify internal structures of faults by means of instruction curves and intersection mapping. On the base of the structure of the hanging wall and underlying wall plates, the fault zone can be divided into four types, which are complete type (with damage zone and induced fracture zone in both plates), incomplete I type (with either damage zone or induced fracture zone in both plates), incomplete II type (only the hanging wall with damage zone or induced fracture zone), and complex type (very difficult to identify the fault zone structure), and the complete type is the most common one. The analysis of fault structure, fault-sand matching, and the fluid potential shows that oil migrated preferentially to the updip sand along the fault, and tends to form backward fault sealing reservoirs. Fault and its internal structure have great influences on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in faulted basins, and the mechanism of hydrocarbon migration along fault zones is a difficulty in petroleum geology. Several fault asphalt zones were found in Dongying Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, which implies that they were once the place for huge hydrocarbon migration and accumulation, and had a firm connection with fault cavities. Larger growth-faults are capable to form bigger cavities along fault zone due to differential deformation and displacement of the two plates during the active faulting period. The characteristics of fault cavities mainly depend upon stress state, lithology, and the shape of fault plane. Areas of high irregularity of the faullt plane being more favorable for the occurrence of fault cavities. The fault cavities act as transfer stations of hydrocarbon migration. When the fault is active, fault cavities will be preferential migration channels and superior accumulation space due to temporary low pressure, and once hydrocarbon migrates into the cavities, light components leak firstly, leaving the remains of heavy residue such as asphalts. According to previous study and outcrop observations, fault zones can be divided into two structural units which are damage zone (sliding breaking zone) and induced fracture zone. The two units are obviously different in mircro-structure, filling material and physical property which leads to the difference in logging response and transporting ability. Using parallel comparison of single well and crosswise comparison between wells, the influences of lithology on logging data can be removed when distinguishing the fault zone from logging data. A well drilling into fault zone and a nearby well out of the fault zone were chosen to carry out the parallel comparison in this study. The two wells have similar sedimentary environment and post-deposition process at the same depth, indicating they should have the same logging response primarily. Thus, the differences in logging response can be used to identify fault zones. Single well crosswise comparison is to compare induced fracture zone, damage zone and original rock zone of a single well drilling into fault zone to highlight the fault zone in logging response. The study shows that the damage zone has the characteristics of low AC (Sonic Logging), low CNL, high DEN while the induced fracture zone has the characteristics of high AC, high CNL and low DEN. Quantitative analyses are conducted on internal structures to classify internal structures of faults by means of instruction curves and intersection mapping. On the base of the structure of the hanging wall and underlying wall plates, the fault zone can be divided into four types, which are complete type (with damage zone and induced fracture zone in both plates), incomplete I type (with either damage zone or induced fracture zone in both plates), incomplete II type (only the hanging wall with damage zone or induced fracture zone), and complex type (very difficult to identify the fault zone structure), and the complete type is the most common one. The analysis of fault structure, fault-sand matching, and the fluid potential shows that oil migrated preferentially to the updip sand along the fault, and tends to form backward fault sealing reservoirs. Panel_15025 Panel_15025 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Penobscot 3D Survey from the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board is a well known and studied dataset. The Penobscot L-30 well, drilled within the boundaries of the survey, encountered hydrocarbons in 5 sands within the upper half of the Cretaceous Middle Missisauga Formation just below the “O” Limestone Marker. The Penobscot B-41 well was drilled to the west of the L-30 in anticipation of having updip potential but was ultimately found to have similar sands within only 20m depth of the L-30 markers and with no indications of significant hydrocarbons. Seismic attributes show different geophysical characteristics within the volume, but it takes a combination of attributes to reveal the differences of the sands between the L-30 and B-41 wells. In order to extract as much information from the dataset as possible, 3 attributes with differing geophysical properties were computed and combined to interactively classify facies within the volume. Three facies were computed using a combination of an amplitude attribute, Texture, a thickness attribute, Terrace Thickness, and a frequency attribute, RGB Frequency Blend. The classes originated from the areas between well markers of the L-30 Middle Missisauga hydrocarbon sands, the L-30 Middle Missisauga wet sands, and the B-41 Middle Missisauga sands. The result showed volumetric facies highlighting the separation of hydrocarbon and wet sands within the L-30 well and a facies from the B-41 well that are similar to the L-30 wet sands. The hydrocarbon bearing facies is not present within the Missisauga section of the B-41 well. Differences between the wells can be seen with individual attributes, but they are more accurately classified and visualized with the multi-attribute analysis. This multi-attribute analysis resulted in a hydrocarbon facies from the L-30 well that could also be used to define other possibly potential pay zones of the Middle Missisauga within the Penobscot dataset. The Penobscot 3D Survey from the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board is a well known and studied dataset. The Penobscot L-30 well, drilled within the boundaries of the survey, encountered hydrocarbons in 5 sands within the upper half of the Cretaceous Middle Missisauga Formation just below the “O” Limestone Marker. The Penobscot B-41 well was drilled to the west of the L-30 in anticipation of having updip potential but was ultimately found to have similar sands within only 20m depth of the L-30 markers and with no indications of significant hydrocarbons. Seismic attributes show different geophysical characteristics within the volume, but it takes a combination of attributes to reveal the differences of the sands between the L-30 and B-41 wells. In order to extract as much information from the dataset as possible, 3 attributes with differing geophysical properties were computed and combined to interactively classify facies within the volume. Three facies were computed using a combination of an amplitude attribute, Texture, a thickness attribute, Terrace Thickness, and a frequency attribute, RGB Frequency Blend. The classes originated from the areas between well markers of the L-30 Middle Missisauga hydrocarbon sands, the L-30 Middle Missisauga wet sands, and the B-41 Middle Missisauga sands. The result showed volumetric facies highlighting the separation of hydrocarbon and wet sands within the L-30 well and a facies from the B-41 well that are similar to the L-30 wet sands. The hydrocarbon bearing facies is not present within the Missisauga section of the B-41 well. Differences between the wells can be seen with individual attributes, but they are more accurately classified and visualized with the multi-attribute analysis. This multi-attribute analysis resulted in a hydrocarbon facies from the L-30 well that could also be used to define other possibly potential pay zones of the Middle Missisauga within the Penobscot dataset. Panel_15023 Panel_15023 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recent advances in core-scanning technology have provided the necessary data to model unconventional reservoirs at extremely high resolution using non-destructive techniques. These include Dual Energy Computed Tomography (DECT) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), which measure bulk density and chemical composition (rock matrix), respectively. Fine-scale core scanning along with CT imaging provides the ability to resolve geologic thin-beds (cm-scale), and can be up-scaled to match wireline logs for regional assessment. Core-scanning methods also provides rich chemical datasets, and in the case of XRF yields up to 30 elements, including majors and traces – this greatly exceeds that of industry standard core gamma scans (K, U and Th). The integration of both core scanning techniques (XRF and DECT) can also be used to generate high-resolution reservoir models to estimate resource (oil and/or gas) in place. Multimineral modeling uses bulk density measured by DECT scans and elements from XRF scans to calculate minerals present, kerogen content, porosity, and clay bound water for effective porosity. Summation of the calculated volumes (minerals plus kerogen) defines solid-phase matrix density; when combine with bulk and fluid densities yields the multimineral model at fine-scale core scanning resolution. The output model is an independent lab-based method that can be compared to log-based multimineral solutions. Recent advances in core-scanning technology have provided the necessary data to model unconventional reservoirs at extremely high resolution using non-destructive techniques. These include Dual Energy Computed Tomography (DECT) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), which measure bulk density and chemical composition (rock matrix), respectively. Fine-scale core scanning along with CT imaging provides the ability to resolve geologic thin-beds (cm-scale), and can be up-scaled to match wireline logs for regional assessment. Core-scanning methods also provides rich chemical datasets, and in the case of XRF yields up to 30 elements, including majors and traces – this greatly exceeds that of industry standard core gamma scans (K, U and Th). The integration of both core scanning techniques (XRF and DECT) can also be used to generate high-resolution reservoir models to estimate resource (oil and/or gas) in place. Multimineral modeling uses bulk density measured by DECT scans and elements from XRF scans to calculate minerals present, kerogen content, porosity, and clay bound water for effective porosity. Summation of the calculated volumes (minerals plus kerogen) defines solid-phase matrix density; when combine with bulk and fluid densities yields the multimineral model at fine-scale core scanning resolution. The output model is an independent lab-based method that can be compared to log-based multimineral solutions. Panel_15024 Panel_15024 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Natural gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone of the Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea are characterized by high water saturation and low gas saturation, the cause of which is not fully understood. Some researchers support high condensate water content as the probable cause. In this study, the water content in the coexisting gas phase was measured under high temperature and high pressure, using an ultra-high pressure fluid PVT system, with the experimental temperature reaching up to 453K and pressure up to 130MPa. The maximum gas saturation was measured for samples with different physical properties using the micropore membrane technique. By combining experimental results with studied of geological data from the Yinggehai Basin, the causes of high-water saturation, low-gas saturation gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone are proposed, as follows: The water content in the coexisting gas phase performs positive correlation with temperature, and negative correlation with pressure. The water content increases with the rise of temperature, and the increasing rate is slower at lower temperature and faster at higher temperature. However, the water content decreases with the rise of pressure, and the decreasing rate is faster at lower pressure and slower at higher pressure. In this experiment, the water content is not very high at the highest temperature of 453K and the highest pressure of 130MPa, because its mole fraction only accounts for 1.51% of the whole gas phase system. This indicates that the condensate water content in the gas reservoir is not very high at high temperature and high pressure. Hence, the output water of gas reservoirs is primarily due to pore water in the layers, and condensate water is not the main source. The gas saturation of gas reservoirs are mainly controlled by the reservoir physical property and the impermeable interlayers. When the reservoir physical property becomes poor, its maximum gas saturation will rapidly reduce. Besides, impermeable or poor permeable interlayers will also lead to the reduction of gas saturation in the gas reservoir. Therefore, low permeability reservoirs (mainly (0.1~100)×10-3µm2) and the occurrence of interlayers should be the main causes of high water saturation and low gas saturation gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone of the Yinggehai Basin, rather than the high condensate water content. Natural gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone of the Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea are characterized by high water saturation and low gas saturation, the cause of which is not fully understood. Some researchers support high condensate water content as the probable cause. In this study, the water content in the coexisting gas phase was measured under high temperature and high pressure, using an ultra-high pressure fluid PVT system, with the experimental temperature reaching up to 453K and pressure up to 130MPa. The maximum gas saturation was measured for samples with different physical properties using the micropore membrane technique. By combining experimental results with studied of geological data from the Yinggehai Basin, the causes of high-water saturation, low-gas saturation gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone are proposed, as follows: The water content in the coexisting gas phase performs positive correlation with temperature, and negative correlation with pressure. The water content increases with the rise of temperature, and the increasing rate is slower at lower temperature and faster at higher temperature. However, the water content decreases with the rise of pressure, and the decreasing rate is faster at lower pressure and slower at higher pressure. In this experiment, the water content is not very high at the highest temperature of 453K and the highest pressure of 130MPa, because its mole fraction only accounts for 1.51% of the whole gas phase system. This indicates that the condensate water content in the gas reservoir is not very high at high temperature and high pressure. Hence, the output water of gas reservoirs is primarily due to pore water in the layers, and condensate water is not the main source. The gas saturation of gas reservoirs are mainly controlled by the reservoir physical property and the impermeable interlayers. When the reservoir physical property becomes poor, its maximum gas saturation will rapidly reduce. Besides, impermeable or poor permeable interlayers will also lead to the reduction of gas saturation in the gas reservoir. Therefore, low permeability reservoirs (mainly (0.1~100)×10-3µm2) and the occurrence of interlayers should be the main causes of high water saturation and low gas saturation gas reservoirs in the high-temperature and high-pressure zone of the Yinggehai Basin, rather than the high condensate water content. Panel_15033 Panel_15033 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recoveries in offshore fields are lower compared to onshore fields predominantly due to larger well spacing, inadequate reservoir characterization and shorter life cycles of the projects. Efforts are in vogue to maximize the recovery by applying EOR techniques. Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are complex on both at macroscopic and microscopic scale and this complexity controls the initial quantity and distribution of hydrocarbons and flow behavior of fluids within the reservoir. Flow behavior becomes more complex with injected fluid used for improving the recovery. Therefore, reservoir characterization is of utmost importance for EOR processes evaluation. Core and log analysis along-with pressure-production data greatly help to adequately define the reservoir and reduce the uncertainty associated with it. This paper discusses about the importance and criticality of core analysis starting from core acquisition, preservation, laboratory studies, analysis and application of data for EOR. Discussion is made for the selection of most appropriate coring technique and lab studies on cores for reservoir description, estimation of EOR incremental oil and formation damage during injection and production processes. Critical analysis is made to highlight the quality and quantity of core analysis data needed for petrophysical interpretation, understanding the storage and flow behavior during primary, secondary and tertiary recovery stages. Also important guidelines are provided for selection of number of plug samples for studies, laboratory methodologies, their strengths and weaknesses, and QC/QA techniques. The paper further elaborates the recent advances related to core analysis for understanding the EOR processes, in-situ saturation monitoring, interaction between injectants and rock-fluid along-with mitigation experiments. Digital core/Pore network modeling is one such emerging technique for the visualization, characterization and SCAL measurements of reservoir rocks. It can provide routine and special core analysis measurements and petrographic analysis which can be used in the quick evaluation of static and dynamic petrophysical properties and flow behavior. Recoveries in offshore fields are lower compared to onshore fields predominantly due to larger well spacing, inadequate reservoir characterization and shorter life cycles of the projects. Efforts are in vogue to maximize the recovery by applying EOR techniques. Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are complex on both at macroscopic and microscopic scale and this complexity controls the initial quantity and distribution of hydrocarbons and flow behavior of fluids within the reservoir. Flow behavior becomes more complex with injected fluid used for improving the recovery. Therefore, reservoir characterization is of utmost importance for EOR processes evaluation. Core and log analysis along-with pressure-production data greatly help to adequately define the reservoir and reduce the uncertainty associated with it. This paper discusses about the importance and criticality of core analysis starting from core acquisition, preservation, laboratory studies, analysis and application of data for EOR. Discussion is made for the selection of most appropriate coring technique and lab studies on cores for reservoir description, estimation of EOR incremental oil and formation damage during injection and production processes. Critical analysis is made to highlight the quality and quantity of core analysis data needed for petrophysical interpretation, understanding the storage and flow behavior during primary, secondary and tertiary recovery stages. Also important guidelines are provided for selection of number of plug samples for studies, laboratory methodologies, their strengths and weaknesses, and QC/QA techniques. The paper further elaborates the recent advances related to core analysis for understanding the EOR processes, in-situ saturation monitoring, interaction between injectants and rock-fluid along-with mitigation experiments. Digital core/Pore network modeling is one such emerging technique for the visualization, characterization and SCAL measurements of reservoir rocks. It can provide routine and special core analysis measurements and petrographic analysis which can be used in the quick evaluation of static and dynamic petrophysical properties and flow behavior. Panel_15034 Panel_15034 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

While current interest in Mexico is focusing on sales for blocks offshore Gulf of Mexico and in adjoining onshore productive basins, now is the time for explorationists to turn their attention to the frontier basins where, after a few more bid rounds in the oil producing areas, there will likely be calls for nominations leading to awarding of exploration contracts. This paper summarizes the present state of evaluation and ranking of these under-explored areas in preparation for such future bid rounds. First of all, it is important to realize that these are not entirely virgin basins. Since the 1940s, Pemex geologists have undertaken extensive field mapping of the whole country and identified potential source and reservoir quality rocks in a number of localities. Magnetic surveys identified deep basins and seismic surveys picked out structural prospects. Some wells were drilled which often resulted in oil or gas shows. Success however has been very limited, with commercial production being established only in the Sabinas Basin. We will review the findings in all the other frontier basins in the hope that a few basins will be found to be productive in the future. Cenozoic Pacific margin type basins lack a good Monterrey-type source rock; only gas shows have been encountered so far. Paleozoic back-arc basins on Mexico's High Plateau have had their source rocks burnt out and traps breached by the Laramide orogeny. Mesozoic Basins have been similarly inverted except for the extension into Mexico of the Peten Basin. Accreted prisms of sediment on the western margin have not been encouraging. The Yucatan Platform remains stable and immature, but has curious gas shows in the area of a major meteoric impact crater. In general, all these areas have low probabilities of encountering commercial hydrocarbons. For this reason Pemex has abandoned further investment in them. But all of the above conclusions are based on limited information. These frontier areas are ripe for re-examination and renewed thinking, especially applying up-to-date geological concepts and production technologies. Maybe some of them will merit being nominated for future bid rounds. Maybe one or two will find commercial hydrocarbons While current interest in Mexico is focusing on sales for blocks offshore Gulf of Mexico and in adjoining onshore productive basins, now is the time for explorationists to turn their attention to the frontier basins where, after a few more bid rounds in the oil producing areas, there will likely be calls for nominations leading to awarding of exploration contracts. This paper summarizes the present state of evaluation and ranking of these under-explored areas in preparation for such future bid rounds. First of all, it is important to realize that these are not entirely virgin basins. Since the 1940s, Pemex geologists have undertaken extensive field mapping of the whole country and identified potential source and reservoir quality rocks in a number of localities. Magnetic surveys identified deep basins and seismic surveys picked out structural prospects. Some wells were drilled which often resulted in oil or gas shows. Success however has been very limited, with commercial production being established only in the Sabinas Basin. We will review the findings in all the other frontier basins in the hope that a few basins will be found to be productive in the future. Cenozoic Pacific margin type basins lack a good Monterrey-type source rock; only gas shows have been encountered so far. Paleozoic back-arc basins on Mexico's High Plateau have had their source rocks burnt out and traps breached by the Laramide orogeny. Mesozoic Basins have been similarly inverted except for the extension into Mexico of the Peten Basin. Accreted prisms of sediment on the western margin have not been encouraging. The Yucatan Platform remains stable and immature, but has curious gas shows in the area of a major meteoric impact crater. In general, all these areas have low probabilities of encountering commercial hydrocarbons. For this reason Pemex has abandoned further investment in them. But all of the above conclusions are based on limited information. These frontier areas are ripe for re-examination and renewed thinking, especially applying up-to-date geological concepts and production technologies. Maybe some of them will merit being nominated for future bid rounds. Maybe one or two will find commercial hydrocarbons Panel_15029 Panel_15029 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Bunyu Field is one of the backbone field of Pertamina EP – the Indonesia government-owned oil and gas company. The production of this field started since 1937 until today. Interestingly nearly 80 year of production, this field experience its second peak of production since 2010 by primary recovery of its deltaic reservoirs. Completion of reservoirs with anomalous log reading is the key to this success. Reinterpretation of cores with regard to the newest facies model and modern sedimen; well logs as input for sequence stratigraphy correlation; 3D seismic for building the faults and geometry framework; and petrophysical properties to know hydrocarbon content of sand layers - was conducted as an integrated study to challenge the unique character of the reservoir. Facies analysis from core and log concluded that deltaic reservoirs are widely distributed in this field with 5 major litofacies that developed as three different depositional facies association: distributary channel (proximal and distal), bars and delta plain deposit. The well correlation and seismic study of this area showing that the sand bodies having high degree of compartmentalization, making it possible to have different hydrocarbon contact to one another. Among all the re-interpretation result, the Petrophysical properties is the most pristine result because of its unique anomaly. This anomalies is low resistivity zone. A deeper analysis of core that include SEM, XRD, Petrography, its litofacies and subsurface analogue showing that the low resistivity anomaly in log is mainly contributed from the conductive ferromagnesian mineral including Pyrite and Siderite that deposited as replacement mineral or pore filing cement. Based on the idealized facies model in bunyu, there is a relation between parasequence stacking pattern to detail mineralogy content, and now the low resistivity zone can be well-predicted. Bunyu Field is one of the backbone field of Pertamina EP – the Indonesia government-owned oil and gas company. The production of this field started since 1937 until today. Interestingly nearly 80 year of production, this field experience its second peak of production since 2010 by primary recovery of its deltaic reservoirs. Completion of reservoirs with anomalous log reading is the key to this success. Reinterpretation of cores with regard to the newest facies model and modern sedimen; well logs as input for sequence stratigraphy correlation; 3D seismic for building the faults and geometry framework; and petrophysical properties to know hydrocarbon content of sand layers - was conducted as an integrated study to challenge the unique character of the reservoir. Facies analysis from core and log concluded that deltaic reservoirs are widely distributed in this field with 5 major litofacies that developed as three different depositional facies association: distributary channel (proximal and distal), bars and delta plain deposit. The well correlation and seismic study of this area showing that the sand bodies having high degree of compartmentalization, making it possible to have different hydrocarbon contact to one another. Among all the re-interpretation result, the Petrophysical properties is the most pristine result because of its unique anomaly. This anomalies is low resistivity zone. A deeper analysis of core that include SEM, XRD, Petrography, its litofacies and subsurface analogue showing that the low resistivity anomaly in log is mainly contributed from the conductive ferromagnesian mineral including Pyrite and Siderite that deposited as replacement mineral or pore filing cement. Based on the idealized facies model in bunyu, there is a relation between parasequence stacking pattern to detail mineralogy content, and now the low resistivity zone can be well-predicted. Panel_15026 Panel_15026 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Ras Budran oil field is located in the offshore NE-dipping central province of the classical asymmetric Gulf of Suez rift basin. The field was discovered in 1977 after the successful drilling of EE 85-1 where the hydrocarbons were produced from the Paleozoic- Lower Cretaceous clastic reservoirs. The poor quality of pre-Miocene structure imaging due to the thick sedimentary section of Miocene evaporates and shales stands against the development activity in Ras Budran oil field. The studied field comprises a sedimentary sequence of Paleozoic to Recent rocks which are separated by several stratigraphical hiatus. Several challenges were valid within the old models that led to misinterpreting the blocks potential and the saturation level. As a consequence, the estimated reserves within the field were misleading. The main objective of the present work is to overcome these challenges, interpret and delineate the possible subsurface structures and build a 3D structural model by using the integration of reprocessed 3D seismic and borehole data in form of VSP, dipmeter and well logs in addition to the petrophysical and production data to delineate the new infill locations within the field and also identifies the possible upside potential locations considered to be near field exploration. The resultant model shows that the studied field includes three major structural blocks due to its articulation by the two dominated sets of NE and NW-striking faults. It is worth to mention the value of using the dipmeter & VSP data in structural constrains on the uncertainty of poor seismic interpretation through the constructed model. The verified structural model represents the nuclei for the 3D static Model and further recommended studies such as fault seal analysis in Ras Budran field. Several prospects and leads were identified in economic sense giving positive indications to add reserves. Suez Oil Company (SUCO) is currently evaluating the possibility to drill these areas. Ras Budran oil field is located in the offshore NE-dipping central province of the classical asymmetric Gulf of Suez rift basin. The field was discovered in 1977 after the successful drilling of EE 85-1 where the hydrocarbons were produced from the Paleozoic- Lower Cretaceous clastic reservoirs. The poor quality of pre-Miocene structure imaging due to the thick sedimentary section of Miocene evaporates and shales stands against the development activity in Ras Budran oil field. The studied field comprises a sedimentary sequence of Paleozoic to Recent rocks which are separated by several stratigraphical hiatus. Several challenges were valid within the old models that led to misinterpreting the blocks potential and the saturation level. As a consequence, the estimated reserves within the field were misleading. The main objective of the present work is to overcome these challenges, interpret and delineate the possible subsurface structures and build a 3D structural model by using the integration of reprocessed 3D seismic and borehole data in form of VSP, dipmeter and well logs in addition to the petrophysical and production data to delineate the new infill locations within the field and also identifies the possible upside potential locations considered to be near field exploration. The resultant model shows that the studied field includes three major structural blocks due to its articulation by the two dominated sets of NE and NW-striking faults. It is worth to mention the value of using the dipmeter & VSP data in structural constrains on the uncertainty of poor seismic interpretation through the constructed model. The verified structural model represents the nuclei for the 3D static Model and further recommended studies such as fault seal analysis in Ras Budran field. Several prospects and leads were identified in economic sense giving positive indications to add reserves. Suez Oil Company (SUCO) is currently evaluating the possibility to drill these areas. Panel_15032 Panel_15032 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

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Panel_14440 Panel_14440 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Typical depositional models for resedimented deepwater carbonates fail to reflect the impact of platform topography on sediment redistribution. This study focuses on a 2-dimensional coastal exposure perpendicular to the margin of the Rellana platform and builds upon work done in the Agua Amarga basin (Cabo de Gata region, Southeast Spain) to demonstrate the interaction of paleotopography and sea level on sediment redistribution into the basin. The results counter the highstand shedding model and focus on proximity of the reefal margin to a steep basin margin. The Rellana platform developed on Neogene volcanic substrate that features a drainage divide separating a steep-dipping (~15 °) south slope from a shallow-dipping (~5 °) north slope. The shallow-dipping north slope steepens to 25° distally (1.3 km N of the drainage divide) and defines the basin margin. It eventually flattens as it reaches the basin floor. The Rellana platform formed the southern rim above the Agua Amarga basin for approximately 4.5 km and was a major source for carbonate accumulations. Seven sequences on the platform document the evolution of the platform from a heterozoan ramp, to photozoan reef to a shallow marine microbial/oolitic system. Basinal deposits consist of grainy heterozoan-dominated shallow-water deposits, hemi-pelagic and pelagic deep-water deposits, carbonate/volcanic breccias, as well as high- and low-density turbidites. During the platform reef phase, the initial reef margin was near the steep basin margin, and margin sourced coarse breccias accumulated in the basin. During a subsequent sea-level rise, the reef margin stepped backward resulting in backstepping of basinal breccias and an increase in fine grained basin deposits. Highstand reef progradation towards the basin margin resulted in an increase of coarse grained, mostly sediment gravity flow deposits in the basin. As sea level fell, reefs continued to prograde and downstep toward the basin resulting in increasing amounts of coarse-grained basinal deposits, including breccias, that progressively stepped toward the basin center. Our results show that proximity of the reef margin to the basin margin increases the volume of coarse material deposited in the basin. This runs counter to the highstand-shedding model and indicates an alternative timing for deposition of coarse-grained basinal sediments. Typical depositional models for resedimented deepwater carbonates fail to reflect the impact of platform topography on sediment redistribution. This study focuses on a 2-dimensional coastal exposure perpendicular to the margin of the Rellana platform and builds upon work done in the Agua Amarga basin (Cabo de Gata region, Southeast Spain) to demonstrate the interaction of paleotopography and sea level on sediment redistribution into the basin. The results counter the highstand shedding model and focus on proximity of the reefal margin to a steep basin margin. The Rellana platform developed on Neogene volcanic substrate that features a drainage divide separating a steep-dipping (~15 °) south slope from a shallow-dipping (~5 °) north slope. The shallow-dipping north slope steepens to 25° distally (1.3 km N of the drainage divide) and defines the basin margin. It eventually flattens as it reaches the basin floor. The Rellana platform formed the southern rim above the Agua Amarga basin for approximately 4.5 km and was a major source for carbonate accumulations. Seven sequences on the platform document the evolution of the platform from a heterozoan ramp, to photozoan reef to a shallow marine microbial/oolitic system. Basinal deposits consist of grainy heterozoan-dominated shallow-water deposits, hemi-pelagic and pelagic deep-water deposits, carbonate/volcanic breccias, as well as high- and low-density turbidites. During the platform reef phase, the initial reef margin was near the steep basin margin, and margin sourced coarse breccias accumulated in the basin. During a subsequent sea-level rise, the reef margin stepped backward resulting in backstepping of basinal breccias and an increase in fine grained basin deposits. Highstand reef progradation towards the basin margin resulted in an increase of coarse grained, mostly sediment gravity flow deposits in the basin. As sea level fell, reefs continued to prograde and downstep toward the basin resulting in increasing amounts of coarse-grained basinal deposits, including breccias, that progressively stepped toward the basin center. Our results show that proximity of the reef margin to the basin margin increases the volume of coarse material deposited in the basin. This runs counter to the highstand-shedding model and indicates an alternative timing for deposition of coarse-grained basinal sediments. Panel_15046 Panel_15046 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Winnipegosis Formation is a carbonate of Middle Devonian age and is overlain by the Prairie evaporite acting as the cap rock in the Williston Basin. The Winnipegosis Formation has produced significantly larger quantities of hydrocarbon in Canada than the United States. Winnipegosis production in North Dakota has been limited to very few fields in which only a few wells produced the majority of the hydrocarbon. The production differences between Canada and the United States have raised questions about the geological and petrophysical factors controlling production from this formation. The majority of the production from the Winnipegosis comes from reservoir rock that has not been plugged with salt. Salt plugging of the prolific carbonate reservoirs is known to be the reason for failure for many wells when salt is the main cap rock. The main purpose of this study was to integrate geological and petrophysical workflows in order to better characterize carbonate reservoirs with a focus on salt plugging as a major production controlling component. Discrepancies occurring between available data from producing and dry wells in the Winnipegosis Formation in North Dakota were addressed, where resistivity logs admit suitable hydrocarbon saturation in both. Further study includes comparison of well logs, core data and micro-scale images from prolific and poor producing fields in North Dakota. It was found that the depositional environment is the main contributing factor on the reservoir quality and production from the Winnipegosis Formation along with the overlying Prairie Formation. Porosity and permeability distribution in the Winnipegosis Formation is highly controlled by the depositional facies through the basin and later affected by salt plugging. The petrophysical study shows that salt plugged porosity degrades reservoir quality and production from the formation. Log analysis data and high resolution core images proves the presence of salt plugs in the reservoir. The Winnipegosis Formation is a carbonate of Middle Devonian age and is overlain by the Prairie evaporite acting as the cap rock in the Williston Basin. The Winnipegosis Formation has produced significantly larger quantities of hydrocarbon in Canada than the United States. Winnipegosis production in North Dakota has been limited to very few fields in which only a few wells produced the majority of the hydrocarbon. The production differences between Canada and the United States have raised questions about the geological and petrophysical factors controlling production from this formation. The majority of the production from the Winnipegosis comes from reservoir rock that has not been plugged with salt. Salt plugging of the prolific carbonate reservoirs is known to be the reason for failure for many wells when salt is the main cap rock. The main purpose of this study was to integrate geological and petrophysical workflows in order to better characterize carbonate reservoirs with a focus on salt plugging as a major production controlling component. Discrepancies occurring between available data from producing and dry wells in the Winnipegosis Formation in North Dakota were addressed, where resistivity logs admit suitable hydrocarbon saturation in both. Further study includes comparison of well logs, core data and micro-scale images from prolific and poor producing fields in North Dakota. It was found that the depositional environment is the main contributing factor on the reservoir quality and production from the Winnipegosis Formation along with the overlying Prairie Formation. Porosity and permeability distribution in the Winnipegosis Formation is highly controlled by the depositional facies through the basin and later affected by salt plugging. The petrophysical study shows that salt plugged porosity degrades reservoir quality and production from the formation. Log analysis data and high resolution core images proves the presence of salt plugs in the reservoir. Panel_15050 Panel_15050 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Microfacies and mineralogical characteristics of modern mixed carbonate-evaporite sediments yield essential data for the interpretation of depositional settings. Although many early diagenetic processes can affect mostly carbonate grain preservation potential, the overall sediment characteristics should contain enough evidence of both siliciclastic sediment input and the carbonate grain production to accurately represent the initial sediment production. This study examines the major carbonate producers in the Little Laughlands Bay, Jamaica, a tropical carbonate lagoon with riverine input of siliciclastic and Cretaceous-Tertiary carbonate lithoclast derived from the island interior. The lagoon is located on the northern coast of the island and is protected from the open-ocean waves by a barrier reef to the north. The lagoon was split into 14 shoreline-to-reef transects spaced 100 m apart. Every 10m depth was recorded and later used to create a bathymetric map. For each transect, a 1x1 m grid was laid down every 50m to collect samples and quantify biota. Major grain types were quantified for 63 thin-section grain-mounts by counting 250 points per thin-section. Bulk sediment samples were powdered and then analyzed for their mineralogy using the standard X-Ray Diffraction method. Major lithofacies types include coarse siliciclastic sand and gravel (backshore to foreshore), fine organic rich sands and muds (nearshore and lagoon center), medium to coarse skeletal sand (high-energy subtidal), and coral rubble (reef flat). Carbonate grains (excluding pre-Holocene carbonate extraclasts) account for 58% of all grain types. The major skeletal components include fragments of Halimeda (5%), red algae (2%), gastropods (3%) and bivalves/foraminifera (<1%). Carbonate producer abundance increases from west (16%) to east (24%), which is evidence by increased numbers of Halimeda (from 7% to 26%) and red algae (from 3% to 8%). There is a strong positive correlation between the abundance of red algae, gastropods and Halimeda, as well as a strong negative relationship between Halimeda and extraclasts. Mineralogy of backshore and upper foreshore sediment is predominated by quartz, feldspar, and low-Mg calcite (mean 1.5 mol% MgCO3). Elsewhere in the lagoon, away from the foreshore and the river mouth, aragonite and high-Mg calcite (mean 15 mol% MgCO3) predominate, and the abundance of non-carbonate minerals (including low-Mg calcite) becomes negligent towards the ref flat. Microfacies and mineralogical characteristics of modern mixed carbonate-evaporite sediments yield essential data for the interpretation of depositional settings. Although many early diagenetic processes can affect mostly carbonate grain preservation potential, the overall sediment characteristics should contain enough evidence of both siliciclastic sediment input and the carbonate grain production to accurately represent the initial sediment production. This study examines the major carbonate producers in the Little Laughlands Bay, Jamaica, a tropical carbonate lagoon with riverine input of siliciclastic and Cretaceous-Tertiary carbonate lithoclast derived from the island interior. The lagoon is located on the northern coast of the island and is protected from the open-ocean waves by a barrier reef to the north. The lagoon was split into 14 shoreline-to-reef transects spaced 100 m apart. Every 10m depth was recorded and later used to create a bathymetric map. For each transect, a 1x1 m grid was laid down every 50m to collect samples and quantify biota. Major grain types were quantified for 63 thin-section grain-mounts by counting 250 points per thin-section. Bulk sediment samples were powdered and then analyzed for their mineralogy using the standard X-Ray Diffraction method. Major lithofacies types include coarse siliciclastic sand and gravel (backshore to foreshore), fine organic rich sands and muds (nearshore and lagoon center), medium to coarse skeletal sand (high-energy subtidal), and coral rubble (reef flat). Carbonate grains (excluding pre-Holocene carbonate extraclasts) account for 58% of all grain types. The major skeletal components include fragments of Halimeda (5%), red algae (2%), gastropods (3%) and bivalves/foraminifera (<1%). Carbonate producer abundance increases from west (16%) to east (24%), which is evidence by increased numbers of Halimeda (from 7% to 26%) and red algae (from 3% to 8%). There is a strong positive correlation between the abundance of red algae, gastropods and Halimeda, as well as a strong negative relationship between Halimeda and extraclasts. Mineralogy of backshore and upper foreshore sediment is predominated by quartz, feldspar, and low-Mg calcite (mean 1.5 mol% MgCO3). Elsewhere in the lagoon, away from the foreshore and the river mouth, aragonite and high-Mg calcite (mean 15 mol% MgCO3) predominate, and the abundance of non-carbonate minerals (including low-Mg calcite) becomes negligent towards the ref flat. Panel_15044 Panel_15044 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Current understanding of the nature of and controls on reservoir facies in the South Atlantic pre-salt Cretaceous lacustrine traps are based on sparse well log and core datasets, which limits our ability to generate predictive models of reservoir geometry and continuity in these enigmatic depositional systems. The upper member of the Lower Cretaceous Yucca Fm. in the Indio Mountains, West Texas comprises lacustrine/fluvial cycles deposited on the eastern margin of the Chihuahua Trough (rift basin) under greenhouse climate conditions similar to the South Atlantic pre-salt reservoirs (SAPSR). Thus it provides a suitable outcrop analog that can be used to generate relevant predictive models for the SAPSR. 11 cycles of interstratified lacustrine and fluvial facies associations were identified in a structural panel (2.4 km wide). Cycles average 30 m in thickness and contain the following facies succession: 1) basal burrowed fine-grained lacustrine sand/siltstone containing localized thrombolite lenses; to 2) massive fine-grained lacustrine sandstone containing abundant irregular septarian carbonate concretions and localized calcite radial fans and spherulites; to 3) lacustrine stromatolitic bindstone; to 4) lacustrine dolomudstone, capped by 5) coarser-grained fluvial/deltaic channel facies. Not all facies are present in every cycle and the cyclic nature of the lacustrine to fluvial depositional systems is attributed to wetter to dryer changes in climate. The structural panel is disrupted by a series of small-displacement (few m) subseismic syndepositional normal faults that bound small-scale uplifts. The subtle differences in bathymetry/topography generated by the faults profoundly influenced lacustrine facies thickness (doubles across faults) and distribution. The stromatolitic bindstone and dolomudstone facies developed preferentially on syndepositional highs, whereas calcite radial fans/spherulites are only present within ~20 m of faults on down-dropped lows. We infer the faults acted as conduits for waters that degassed upon reaching the surface along fault-related seeps, causing precipitation of calcite radial fans/spherulites on the alkaline lake floor. Dolomitization and silicification were identified in all cycles and all lithofacies except for the thrombolite and calcite radial fans/spherulites and do not appear to be fault controlled, except for rare hydrothermal (?) saddle dolomite that is spatially associated with syndepositional faults. Current understanding of the nature of and controls on reservoir facies in the South Atlantic pre-salt Cretaceous lacustrine traps are based on sparse well log and core datasets, which limits our ability to generate predictive models of reservoir geometry and continuity in these enigmatic depositional systems. The upper member of the Lower Cretaceous Yucca Fm. in the Indio Mountains, West Texas comprises lacustrine/fluvial cycles deposited on the eastern margin of the Chihuahua Trough (rift basin) under greenhouse climate conditions similar to the South Atlantic pre-salt reservoirs (SAPSR). Thus it provides a suitable outcrop analog that can be used to generate relevant predictive models for the SAPSR. 11 cycles of interstratified lacustrine and fluvial facies associations were identified in a structural panel (2.4 km wide). Cycles average 30 m in thickness and contain the following facies succession: 1) basal burrowed fine-grained lacustrine sand/siltstone containing localized thrombolite lenses; to 2) massive fine-grained lacustrine sandstone containing abundant irregular septarian carbonate concretions and localized calcite radial fans and spherulites; to 3) lacustrine stromatolitic bindstone; to 4) lacustrine dolomudstone, capped by 5) coarser-grained fluvial/deltaic channel facies. Not all facies are present in every cycle and the cyclic nature of the lacustrine to fluvial depositional systems is attributed to wetter to dryer changes in climate. The structural panel is disrupted by a series of small-displacement (few m) subseismic syndepositional normal faults that bound small-scale uplifts. The subtle differences in bathymetry/topography generated by the faults profoundly influenced lacustrine facies thickness (doubles across faults) and distribution. The stromatolitic bindstone and dolomudstone facies developed preferentially on syndepositional highs, whereas calcite radial fans/spherulites are only present within ~20 m of faults on down-dropped lows. We infer the faults acted as conduits for waters that degassed upon reaching the surface along fault-related seeps, causing precipitation of calcite radial fans/spherulites on the alkaline lake floor. Dolomitization and silicification were identified in all cycles and all lithofacies except for the thrombolite and calcite radial fans/spherulites and do not appear to be fault controlled, except for rare hydrothermal (?) saddle dolomite that is spatially associated with syndepositional faults. Panel_15048 Panel_15048 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The log and core analysis provides a depositional and stratigraphic synthesis of the Faridah unit in the study area. It is based on a review of 2000 feet of core data from 17 wells. These wells are located in the onshore and adjacent coastal waters. The work was intended for establishing a correlative stratigraphic framework and understanding the depositional settings of the Faridah interval from the outcrop belt to the subsurface. The Middle Jurassic Dhruma Formation is bounded above and below by the Tuwaiq Mountain and Marrat formations, respectively, and consists predominantly of carbonates and a lesser amount of shale. The formation has been subdivided into six members; D1-D6, with D-4 containing the Faridah unit. The type section, W-5 well, comprises four stacked and distinct layers, termed the Faridah-D, -C, -B and -A, in ascending stratigraphic order. The sedimentologic analysis and lithologic breakdown of the Faridah sediments led to the identification of 12 primary lithofacies. These are designated LF1 to LF12 in broadly shallowing upward, basin to platform, order. The lateral distribution of the Faridah lithofacies suggests that the environment of deposition range from platform interior to basinal setting. The stratigraphic architecture and facies stacking patterns suggest that the Faridah interval spans parts of at least two long-term depositional sequences, together forming a large-scale northward-prograding and thinning shelf-margin succession. This thinning trend is accompanied by a gross change in depositional facies, from (a) thick platform-top peloid-oncoid packstone and grainstone, to (b) shelf-edge micro-gravels, coral boundstones and slumped foreslope facies, to (c) thin bituminous basin-floor laminites in the northern parts. The D4 sediments are stacked to form four correlatable high-frequency cycles (Faridah D-A), representing a mid- to late-highstand systems tract. These four cycles progressively thin basin-ward, and their correlatability becomes insecured and less distinguishable. The best primary interparticle macroporosities are associated with the Faridah shelf-margin grainstone facies at the Faridah, Ash Shihiyah and southern Juraybi’at areas, with fair to good permeabilities. The northward transition from clean porous shelf-edge facies to tight basin-floor laminites occurs over a distance of just a few tens of kilometers, and provides opportunities for stratigraphic traps in the area. The log and core analysis provides a depositional and stratigraphic synthesis of the Faridah unit in the study area. It is based on a review of 2000 feet of core data from 17 wells. These wells are located in the onshore and adjacent coastal waters. The work was intended for establishing a correlative stratigraphic framework and understanding the depositional settings of the Faridah interval from the outcrop belt to the subsurface. The Middle Jurassic Dhruma Formation is bounded above and below by the Tuwaiq Mountain and Marrat formations, respectively, and consists predominantly of carbonates and a lesser amount of shale. The formation has been subdivided into six members; D1-D6, with D-4 containing the Faridah unit. The type section, W-5 well, comprises four stacked and distinct layers, termed the Faridah-D, -C, -B and -A, in ascending stratigraphic order. The sedimentologic analysis and lithologic breakdown of the Faridah sediments led to the identification of 12 primary lithofacies. These are designated LF1 to LF12 in broadly shallowing upward, basin to platform, order. The lateral distribution of the Faridah lithofacies suggests that the environment of deposition range from platform interior to basinal setting. The stratigraphic architecture and facies stacking patterns suggest that the Faridah interval spans parts of at least two long-term depositional sequences, together forming a large-scale northward-prograding and thinning shelf-margin succession. This thinning trend is accompanied by a gross change in depositional facies, from (a) thick platform-top peloid-oncoid packstone and grainstone, to (b) shelf-edge micro-gravels, coral boundstones and slumped foreslope facies, to (c) thin bituminous basin-floor laminites in the northern parts. The D4 sediments are stacked to form four correlatable high-frequency cycles (Faridah D-A), representing a mid- to late-highstand systems tract. These four cycles progressively thin basin-ward, and their correlatability becomes insecured and less distinguishable. The best primary interparticle macroporosities are associated with the Faridah shelf-margin grainstone facies at the Faridah, Ash Shihiyah and southern Juraybi’at areas, with fair to good permeabilities. The northward transition from clean porous shelf-edge facies to tight basin-floor laminites occurs over a distance of just a few tens of kilometers, and provides opportunities for stratigraphic traps in the area. Panel_15047 Panel_15047 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14444 Panel_14444 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The late Miocene mixed system in the Cibao Basin of the Dominican Republic contains calcite-cemented concretions that formed near the seafloor very early in the post-depositional history. Concretions occur within the inner to middle shelf siliciclastic-rich sediments. Siliciclastic and skeletal grains are cemented by primary, low-magnesium calcite marine cement (10-30 micron crystals), whereas aragonite or high-magnesium calcite cements dominate in tropical carbonates. Stable C and O isotope values of concretion calcite cement (-10 to -30‰ carbon: -2 to -5‰ oxygen) are consistent with formation in pore water where alkalinity was generated from oxidation of organic matter by sulfate ions in the zone of bacterial sulfate reduction. Oxidation of organic matter was relatively slow, and precipitation of marine low-Mg calcite was likely diffusion controlled. A mechanism for Mg2+ uptake was likely active in some form to limit the inhibitory effect of Mg2+ and allow low-Mg calcite precipitation. One possible mechanism for decreasing the Mg/Ca ratio may be the absorption of Mg2+ by clay minerals or other small grains. The clay mineral chlorite, common in the Cibao Basin and in many siliciclastic marine sediments, may be able to "fix" Mg2+ by absorption or ion exchange. Most concretions form along cycle boundaries, perhaps when deposition rate is low or during periods of non-deposition. Concretions also form as isolated bodies within the 1-2 m thick depositional cycles. Pervasive calcite cementation can form nearly continuous thin beds (5-20 cm thick) that can have anomalously low porosity (flow baffles) and high acoustic velocities relative to adjacent sediments at this early stage of burial. The late Miocene mixed system in the Cibao Basin of the Dominican Republic contains calcite-cemented concretions that formed near the seafloor very early in the post-depositional history. Concretions occur within the inner to middle shelf siliciclastic-rich sediments. Siliciclastic and skeletal grains are cemented by primary, low-magnesium calcite marine cement (10-30 micron crystals), whereas aragonite or high-magnesium calcite cements dominate in tropical carbonates. Stable C and O isotope values of concretion calcite cement (-10 to -30‰ carbon: -2 to -5‰ oxygen) are consistent with formation in pore water where alkalinity was generated from oxidation of organic matter by sulfate ions in the zone of bacterial sulfate reduction. Oxidation of organic matter was relatively slow, and precipitation of marine low-Mg calcite was likely diffusion controlled. A mechanism for Mg2+ uptake was likely active in some form to limit the inhibitory effect of Mg2+ and allow low-Mg calcite precipitation. One possible mechanism for decreasing the Mg/Ca ratio may be the absorption of Mg2+ by clay minerals or other small grains. The clay mineral chlorite, common in the Cibao Basin and in many siliciclastic marine sediments, may be able to "fix" Mg2+ by absorption or ion exchange. Most concretions form along cycle boundaries, perhaps when deposition rate is low or during periods of non-deposition. Concretions also form as isolated bodies within the 1-2 m thick depositional cycles. Pervasive calcite cementation can form nearly continuous thin beds (5-20 cm thick) that can have anomalously low porosity (flow baffles) and high acoustic velocities relative to adjacent sediments at this early stage of burial. Panel_15079 Panel_15079 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

This study focuses on outcrop analogues of producing facies of the subsurface Eagle Ford Fm.: the Boquillas Fm. in West Texas. These rocks display cyclic alternations of organic-matter-rich, globigerinid wackestones, organic-matter poor, planktonic skeletal grainstones and volcanic ash beds. The goal is to investigate whether this cyclicity can be used for correlations or not, and to what extent. Sedimentological observations, LIDAR panorama, GigaPan high-resolution photomosaics and photogrammetry datasets were collected along HWY 90 in Val Verde County and in Big Bend National Park. Large hand samples were slabbed for visual analysis and classical petrography was carried out on thin sections. Observations show that both the globigerinid wackestones and the planktonic skeletal grainstones were deposited below storm wave base under the influence of bottom currents. Detailed study of the planktonic skeletal grainstone body geometries show that they accumulated as hydraulic dunes, megaripples, sand ridges and sand sheets that were locally modified by diagenetic concretionary crystallization. Grainstone body geometries vary significantly between stratigraphic horizons. Detailed measurements of geometries show that these bedforms are on average only 50% continuous laterally. The discontinuous character of these planktonic skeletal grainstone bodies makes using wide scale correlation problematic. The abundance of the coarse planktonic skeletal material that makes up these planktonic skeletal grainstone bodies is a function of changes in abundance of high level trophic level predators and the reproduction of primary producers. This activity, in turn, is driven by the input of iron from the volcanic ash beds. Cyclicity is, thus, a function of alternating periods of lower primary productivity with lower sediment accumulation rates (globigerinid wackestones), and shorter periods of high primary productivity and higher accumulation rates (planktonic skeletal grainstones). Organic matter content is a function of the bioclastic sedimentary dilution. This study focuses on outcrop analogues of producing facies of the subsurface Eagle Ford Fm.: the Boquillas Fm. in West Texas. These rocks display cyclic alternations of organic-matter-rich, globigerinid wackestones, organic-matter poor, planktonic skeletal grainstones and volcanic ash beds. The goal is to investigate whether this cyclicity can be used for correlations or not, and to what extent. Sedimentological observations, LIDAR panorama, GigaPan high-resolution photomosaics and photogrammetry datasets were collected along HWY 90 in Val Verde County and in Big Bend National Park. Large hand samples were slabbed for visual analysis and classical petrography was carried out on thin sections. Observations show that both the globigerinid wackestones and the planktonic skeletal grainstones were deposited below storm wave base under the influence of bottom currents. Detailed study of the planktonic skeletal grainstone body geometries show that they accumulated as hydraulic dunes, megaripples, sand ridges and sand sheets that were locally modified by diagenetic concretionary crystallization. Grainstone body geometries vary significantly between stratigraphic horizons. Detailed measurements of geometries show that these bedforms are on average only 50% continuous laterally. The discontinuous character of these planktonic skeletal grainstone bodies makes using wide scale correlation problematic. The abundance of the coarse planktonic skeletal material that makes up these planktonic skeletal grainstone bodies is a function of changes in abundance of high level trophic level predators and the reproduction of primary producers. This activity, in turn, is driven by the input of iron from the volcanic ash beds. Cyclicity is, thus, a function of alternating periods of lower primary productivity with lower sediment accumulation rates (globigerinid wackestones), and shorter periods of high primary productivity and higher accumulation rates (planktonic skeletal grainstones). Organic matter content is a function of the bioclastic sedimentary dilution. Panel_15083 Panel_15083 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Porosity evolution of many giant carbonate petroleum reservoirs is directly related to unconformities e.g. Kirkuk, Iraq, and Golden Lane, Mexico. The mid-Cretaceous El Abra Limestone, Sierra El Abra, Mexico, an exhumed giant reservoir, provides quantitative data on porosity evolution associated with multiple exposure surfaces capped by a pre-Turonian unconformity with as much as 17 Ma duration. Pertinent variables include grain vs. mud content, mineralogy (calcite vs. aragonite layers in rudists), distance from the platform margin, and duration of exposure. Four detailed measured sections, each ~60 m thick, near the platform margin and previous studies toward the platform interior document facies relationships and repeated (1-3m) subaerial exposure surfaces marked by solution-collapse breccia, channel and vuggy porosity, pitted truncation surfaces, paleocavities, blackened clasts, and cut-and-fill structures. Grainy marginal facies are cut by platform-parallel fractures filled with pelagic biota and probable marine cements (Neptunian dikes). Transmitted light and cathodoluminescence petrography, fluid-inclusion analysis and stable-isotope analysis reveal multiple generations of cement and other diagenetic features related to surfaces of discontinuity; typical are vadose cements in dissolution pores overlain by marine cements and internal sediment with pelagic biota. Late-stage equant calcite cement precipitated from a meteoric aquifer at temperatures less than ~50°C associated with subaerial exposure, perhaps beneath the pre-Turonian unconformity. Perm plugs provide a quantitative database for extant porosity and permeability trends related to unconformities. Collectively, these results provide a reservoir analogue that has implications useful for understanding porosity permeability relationships associated with unconformities in shallow-water platform-margin carbonates, e.g. the Golden Lane, Isthmus, and Campeche reservoirs of the Gulf of Mexico, and similar reservoirs of any age. Porosity evolution of many giant carbonate petroleum reservoirs is directly related to unconformities e.g. Kirkuk, Iraq, and Golden Lane, Mexico. The mid-Cretaceous El Abra Limestone, Sierra El Abra, Mexico, an exhumed giant reservoir, provides quantitative data on porosity evolution associated with multiple exposure surfaces capped by a pre-Turonian unconformity with as much as 17 Ma duration. Pertinent variables include grain vs. mud content, mineralogy (calcite vs. aragonite layers in rudists), distance from the platform margin, and duration of exposure. Four detailed measured sections, each ~60 m thick, near the platform margin and previous studies toward the platform interior document facies relationships and repeated (1-3m) subaerial exposure surfaces marked by solution-collapse breccia, channel and vuggy porosity, pitted truncation surfaces, paleocavities, blackened clasts, and cut-and-fill structures. Grainy marginal facies are cut by platform-parallel fractures filled with pelagic biota and probable marine cements (Neptunian dikes). Transmitted light and cathodoluminescence petrography, fluid-inclusion analysis and stable-isotope analysis reveal multiple generations of cement and other diagenetic features related to surfaces of discontinuity; typical are vadose cements in dissolution pores overlain by marine cements and internal sediment with pelagic biota. Late-stage equant calcite cement precipitated from a meteoric aquifer at temperatures less than ~50°C associated with subaerial exposure, perhaps beneath the pre-Turonian unconformity. Perm plugs provide a quantitative database for extant porosity and permeability trends related to unconformities. Collectively, these results provide a reservoir analogue that has implications useful for understanding porosity permeability relationships associated with unconformities in shallow-water platform-margin carbonates, e.g. the Golden Lane, Isthmus, and Campeche reservoirs of the Gulf of Mexico, and similar reservoirs of any age. Panel_15085 Panel_15085 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The d13C & d18O of zoned carbonate cements of diagenetic origin can be measured in-situ on the sub-10-µm scale using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). A critical aspect of analytical methods advancement is the continued development of standards for correcting systematic, compositionally-dependent - but generally highly non-linear - sample matrix effects that bias measured isotope ratios. Precision is a trade-off with beam size and, depending on the isotope system, varies between ±0.3‰ (2SD; 10µm beam, d18O) and ±1.0‰ (2SD; 3µm beam for d18O, 5-10µm beam for d13C). Analyses on this scale enhance the spatial resolution in applied problems relating to carbonate diagenesis and carbonate cementation of sandstone-shale systems. For example, by preserving petrographic relations between two different authigenic cement phases exhibiting equilibrium growth textures (e.g. dolomite-quartz overgrowths), in-situ d18O measurements provide a temperature constraint for a particular stage of cementation that is independent of assumptions about the d18O of porewaters from which cements precipitated. Transects across early-to-late cement generations provide a clearly-resolved, zone-by-zone account of changes in d13C & d18O which elucidate the evolution of diagenetic conditions, including 1) temperature during progressive burial and heating, 2) isotopically-distinct fluid/brine migration events, 3) the progression of organic matter (OM) maturation and 4) the reaction of smectite?illite clay, which affects porewater d18O. A regional case study of dolomite-ankerite cements in the sandy-shaly Late Cambrian Eau Claire Fm of the Illinois Basin reveals systematic depth-related C- and O-isotope zoning (early-to-late d18O: -5?-16‰ VPDB, d13C ~0?-10‰ VPDB). d18O-based T-modeling - using both internal and external constraints on porewater d18O - indicates heating to ~90°C during basin subsidence, and additional conductive heating to ~130°C during the basin-scale, late Paleozoic hot brine migrations through the underlying Mt. Simon sandstone aquifer that resulted in regional Mississippi Valley-type ore body formation. The d13C of the latest cement generations indicates only a moderate contribution of OM-derived, isotopically-light C, reflecting the overall organic-leanness of Eau Claire sediments (TOC <0.5%). These results compliment SIMS studies of d18O in quartz-overgrowths of the Eau Claire and Mt Simon Fms (Hyodo et al., 2014, Chem Geol; Pollington et al., 2011, Geology). The d13C & d18O of zoned carbonate cements of diagenetic origin can be measured in-situ on the sub-10-µm scale using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). A critical aspect of analytical methods advancement is the continued development of standards for correcting systematic, compositionally-dependent - but generally highly non-linear - sample matrix effects that bias measured isotope ratios. Precision is a trade-off with beam size and, depending on the isotope system, varies between ±0.3‰ (2SD; 10µm beam, d18O) and ±1.0‰ (2SD; 3µm beam for d18O, 5-10µm beam for d13C). Analyses on this scale enhance the spatial resolution in applied problems relating to carbonate diagenesis and carbonate cementation of sandstone-shale systems. For example, by preserving petrographic relations between two different authigenic cement phases exhibiting equilibrium growth textures (e.g. dolomite-quartz overgrowths), in-situ d18O measurements provide a temperature constraint for a particular stage of cementation that is independent of assumptions about the d18O of porewaters from which cements precipitated. Transects across early-to-late cement generations provide a clearly-resolved, zone-by-zone account of changes in d13C & d18O which elucidate the evolution of diagenetic conditions, including 1) temperature during progressive burial and heating, 2) isotopically-distinct fluid/brine migration events, 3) the progression of organic matter (OM) maturation and 4) the reaction of smectite?illite clay, which affects porewater d18O. A regional case study of dolomite-ankerite cements in the sandy-shaly Late Cambrian Eau Claire Fm of the Illinois Basin reveals systematic depth-related C- and O-isotope zoning (early-to-late d18O: -5?-16‰ VPDB, d13C ~0?-10‰ VPDB). d18O-based T-modeling - using both internal and external constraints on porewater d18O - indicates heating to ~90°C during basin subsidence, and additional conductive heating to ~130°C during the basin-scale, late Paleozoic hot brine migrations through the underlying Mt. Simon sandstone aquifer that resulted in regional Mississippi Valley-type ore body formation. The d13C of the latest cement generations indicates only a moderate contribution of OM-derived, isotopically-light C, reflecting the overall organic-leanness of Eau Claire sediments (TOC <0.5%). These results compliment SIMS studies of d18O in quartz-overgrowths of the Eau Claire and Mt Simon Fms (Hyodo et al., 2014, Chem Geol; Pollington et al., 2011, Geology). Panel_15087 Panel_15087 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Late Middle Ordovician Trenton Limestone is a highly productive carbonate hydrocarbon reservoir across the eastern United States. Enhanced secondary porosity and permeability within the Trenton Limestone generated by hydrothermal dolomitization (HTD) in Michigan and New York have allowed for extensive hydrocarbon reservoirs to be developed. In these areas, carbonate facies assemblages have been shown to significantly control the distribution of diagenetic alterations and influence the geometry and lateral continuity of reservoir-grade porosity and permeability. South-central Kentucky provides an exploratory region for post-depositional hydrothermal alteration due to its vicinity to the Appalachian-forming orogenic tectonism. This study tests the hypothesis that HTD within the Trenton Limestone of Kentucky may be more extensive in facies that exhibit high primary permeabilities and tests the hypothesis that HTD has influenced historically productive fields of south-central Kentucky. Results from outcrop analyses indicate that HTD is preferential to relatively low-porosity packstones with interbedded shales that overlie low-porosity wackestones. Altered zones exhibit significant vuggy and interparticle porosity with distinct streaks of HTD extending laterally into the unaltered host packstones. Cores from south-central Kentucky exhibit variable HTD in the form of saddle dolomite filling large isolated vugs. Host facies are primarily moderate to thinly bedded skeletal packstones that directly underlay wackestones or shales. Petrographical analysis with the use of Alizarin red S, blue-dyed epoxy, and Potassium-Ferricyanide allows for the development of detailed facies descriptions and for the determination of HTD extent through matrix-replaced dolomite on outcrop and in core samples. Observed cores display poorly developed matrix-replaced HTD with more prevalent large, isolated vugs of saddle dolomite yielding poorly developed secondary permeabilities. Investigation of fluid inclusion freeze-thaw and stable isotope analyses allow for the determination of the nature and extent of HTD occurrences. Comparisons to previous publications through northern portions of the Appalachian and Michigan Basins allow for conclusions of approximate timing and sources of dolomitization to be developed and compared. Results of the analysis may provide a new predictive tool to be utilized for hydrocarbon exploration through the southern Appalachian foreland. The Late Middle Ordovician Trenton Limestone is a highly productive carbonate hydrocarbon reservoir across the eastern United States. Enhanced secondary porosity and permeability within the Trenton Limestone generated by hydrothermal dolomitization (HTD) in Michigan and New York have allowed for extensive hydrocarbon reservoirs to be developed. In these areas, carbonate facies assemblages have been shown to significantly control the distribution of diagenetic alterations and influence the geometry and lateral continuity of reservoir-grade porosity and permeability. South-central Kentucky provides an exploratory region for post-depositional hydrothermal alteration due to its vicinity to the Appalachian-forming orogenic tectonism. This study tests the hypothesis that HTD within the Trenton Limestone of Kentucky may be more extensive in facies that exhibit high primary permeabilities and tests the hypothesis that HTD has influenced historically productive fields of south-central Kentucky. Results from outcrop analyses indicate that HTD is preferential to relatively low-porosity packstones with interbedded shales that overlie low-porosity wackestones. Altered zones exhibit significant vuggy and interparticle porosity with distinct streaks of HTD extending laterally into the unaltered host packstones. Cores from south-central Kentucky exhibit variable HTD in the form of saddle dolomite filling large isolated vugs. Host facies are primarily moderate to thinly bedded skeletal packstones that directly underlay wackestones or shales. Petrographical analysis with the use of Alizarin red S, blue-dyed epoxy, and Potassium-Ferricyanide allows for the development of detailed facies descriptions and for the determination of HTD extent through matrix-replaced dolomite on outcrop and in core samples. Observed cores display poorly developed matrix-replaced HTD with more prevalent large, isolated vugs of saddle dolomite yielding poorly developed secondary permeabilities. Investigation of fluid inclusion freeze-thaw and stable isotope analyses allow for the determination of the nature and extent of HTD occurrences. Comparisons to previous publications through northern portions of the Appalachian and Michigan Basins allow for conclusions of approximate timing and sources of dolomitization to be developed and compared. Results of the analysis may provide a new predictive tool to be utilized for hydrocarbon exploration through the southern Appalachian foreland. Panel_15077 Panel_15077 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

High-temperature laboratory synthesis experiments indicate that ordered, stoichiometric dolomite forms via a series of metastable precursors, but the exact reaction pathway remains a poorly understood aspect of dolomitization. In this study we use over one-hundred high-temperature experiments to evaluate the effects of temperature on (a) the rate of dolomitization, (b) evolution of cation order and (c) product composition over the range of 160-250°C. Reactions were conducted in Teflon-lined stainless steel reaction vessels containing 0.1 g of aragonite ooids (300-354 µm size fraction) from the Ambergris Shoal, Turks and Caicos Islands, B.W.I. and 15 mL of a 0.875 M Mg-Ca solution (Mg/Ca = 1.0). Dolomitization reactions were periodically terminated and solid products were analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction to determine the relative abundances of the mineral phases present, their composition and degree of cation order. Aragonite ooid data exhibit significantly less uncertainty than previously published data for ground Iceland spar calcite reactants and thus provide a more detailed picture of the dolomitization reaction. Data indicate that regardless of temperature, the first phase formed is always disordered, very high magnesium calcite (VHMC) with 40-45 mol% MgCO3. At lower temperatures the VHMC forms less stoichiometric products initially. VHMC is subsequently replaced by poorly ordered dolomite later in the reaction after more than 90% of the initial aragonite ooid reactants have been consumed. During this phase of the reaction, cation ordering increases simultaneously with increases in stoichiometry of reaction products. Longer reactions indicate that cation order and dolomite stoichiometry continue to increase with time, but at slower rates than earlier in the reaction. Data show that the rate at which VHMC replaces aragonite ooids, and the overall rate of dolomitization, exhibit strong, non-linear temperature dependence where temperatures below 200°C exhibit significantly slower rates than temperatures above 200°C. The induction period of the reaction also exhibits strong non-linear temperature dependence. Higher temperatures dramatically affect the rate of cation ordering compared to lower temperature reactions. Results from high-temperature experiments suggest that the reaction pathway of dolomitization in nature may be more complicated than a simple dissolution-reprecipitation reaction between a CaCO3 precursor and fully-ordered dolomite. High-temperature laboratory synthesis experiments indicate that ordered, stoichiometric dolomite forms via a series of metastable precursors, but the exact reaction pathway remains a poorly understood aspect of dolomitization. In this study we use over one-hundred high-temperature experiments to evaluate the effects of temperature on (a) the rate of dolomitization, (b) evolution of cation order and (c) product composition over the range of 160-250°C. Reactions were conducted in Teflon-lined stainless steel reaction vessels containing 0.1 g of aragonite ooids (300-354 µm size fraction) from the Ambergris Shoal, Turks and Caicos Islands, B.W.I. and 15 mL of a 0.875 M Mg-Ca solution (Mg/Ca = 1.0). Dolomitization reactions were periodically terminated and solid products were analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction to determine the relative abundances of the mineral phases present, their composition and degree of cation order. Aragonite ooid data exhibit significantly less uncertainty than previously published data for ground Iceland spar calcite reactants and thus provide a more detailed picture of the dolomitization reaction. Data indicate that regardless of temperature, the first phase formed is always disordered, very high magnesium calcite (VHMC) with 40-45 mol% MgCO3. At lower temperatures the VHMC forms less stoichiometric products initially. VHMC is subsequently replaced by poorly ordered dolomite later in the reaction after more than 90% of the initial aragonite ooid reactants have been consumed. During this phase of the reaction, cation ordering increases simultaneously with increases in stoichiometry of reaction products. Longer reactions indicate that cation order and dolomite stoichiometry continue to increase with time, but at slower rates than earlier in the reaction. Data show that the rate at which VHMC replaces aragonite ooids, and the overall rate of dolomitization, exhibit strong, non-linear temperature dependence where temperatures below 200°C exhibit significantly slower rates than temperatures above 200°C. The induction period of the reaction also exhibits strong non-linear temperature dependence. Higher temperatures dramatically affect the rate of cation ordering compared to lower temperature reactions. Results from high-temperature experiments suggest that the reaction pathway of dolomitization in nature may be more complicated than a simple dissolution-reprecipitation reaction between a CaCO3 precursor and fully-ordered dolomite. Panel_15078 Panel_15078 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Unconventional Mississippian oil and gas reservoirs in central and northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas are characterized by porosities of 1-2 percent or less, and permeability values measured in fractions of millidarcies. As such, natural fractures are an important part of reservoir performance in the “Mississippi Lime”. Understanding the types and distribution of fractures in these carbonate rocks and how they may be related to facies and sequence stratigraphic architecture, may increase the predictability of fracture-enhanced permeability in the subsurface. The study area is located in northeastern Oklahoma in Logan, Payne, and Osage counties. Four cores were used for the study: Adkisson 1-33, Winney 1-8, Elinore 1-18, and Orion Blackbird 3-44. Fractures in the core were analyzed on a morphological basis (i.e. fracture type) and various fracture properties were measured (i.e. aperture, spacing, continuity, length, and density of fractures). This data was used in conjunction with facies analysis, wireline logs, and the established high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework. Six facies types were defined in core. Of these six facies, the skeletal-peloidal wackestone had the highest density of fractures per foot, averaging 5.1 fractures per foot. The skeletal-peloidal packstone to grainstone facies had the lowest fracture density, averaging 1.6 fractures per foot. The natural fractures seen in core include: ptygmatic, stylolite-related, extensional, and shear fractures. The preliminary data from the Orion Blackbird core suggests that intensity of fracturing is facies dependent. Therefore, an understanding of the high resolution sequence stratigraphic architecture and facies distribution both vertically and laterally can greatly increase the predictability of fracturing and subsequent trends in permeability in the subsurface. Unconventional Mississippian oil and gas reservoirs in central and northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas are characterized by porosities of 1-2 percent or less, and permeability values measured in fractions of millidarcies. As such, natural fractures are an important part of reservoir performance in the “Mississippi Lime”. Understanding the types and distribution of fractures in these carbonate rocks and how they may be related to facies and sequence stratigraphic architecture, may increase the predictability of fracture-enhanced permeability in the subsurface. The study area is located in northeastern Oklahoma in Logan, Payne, and Osage counties. Four cores were used for the study: Adkisson 1-33, Winney 1-8, Elinore 1-18, and Orion Blackbird 3-44. Fractures in the core were analyzed on a morphological basis (i.e. fracture type) and various fracture properties were measured (i.e. aperture, spacing, continuity, length, and density of fractures). This data was used in conjunction with facies analysis, wireline logs, and the established high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework. Six facies types were defined in core. Of these six facies, the skeletal-peloidal wackestone had the highest density of fractures per foot, averaging 5.1 fractures per foot. The skeletal-peloidal packstone to grainstone facies had the lowest fracture density, averaging 1.6 fractures per foot. The natural fractures seen in core include: ptygmatic, stylolite-related, extensional, and shear fractures. The preliminary data from the Orion Blackbird core suggests that intensity of fracturing is facies dependent. Therefore, an understanding of the high resolution sequence stratigraphic architecture and facies distribution both vertically and laterally can greatly increase the predictability of fracturing and subsequent trends in permeability in the subsurface. Panel_15081 Panel_15081 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Operators within the Williston Basin have expressed increasing desire to evaluate the distribution of hydrocarbon charge in the middle member of the Bakken Formation, Williston Basin. Irregular carbonate cement appears to have grown authigenically prior to the migration of hydrocarbons from the Upper and Lower Bakken Shales. Where cement is present, charge is absent. This is a controlling factor on both the producibility of the Middle Bakken and stakeholders’ resultant profit margins. The distribution of UV fluorescence on Middle Bakken cores portrays a clear distinction between the presence or absence of carbonate cement. This qualitative assessment has guided further work into understanding the geochemical controls on the genesis of such cement. An understanding of the genetic (and diagenetic) history may lead to our ability to predict the distribution of cement across the Williston Basin and improve operators’ performance. Isotopic and mineralogical fingerprints may unlock the complex geochemical story of the Middle Bakken. Authigenic cementation is often attributed to the anaerobic oxidation of biogenic-methane in the shallow subsurface (methanogenic origins). Oxidation generates bicarbonate, which reacts to calcium in the subsurface waters and forms cement. By analyzing carbon isotopes of Middle Bakken cement it may be possible to determine whether the early release of biogenic methane from the Lower Bakken Shale led to the formation of carbonate cement. A detailed understanding of the formation and distribution of carbonate cement among a select group of North Dakota cores may then be extrapolated throughout the Williston Basin. This will aid operators in the optimization of their developmental initiatives. Operators within the Williston Basin have expressed increasing desire to evaluate the distribution of hydrocarbon charge in the middle member of the Bakken Formation, Williston Basin. Irregular carbonate cement appears to have grown authigenically prior to the migration of hydrocarbons from the Upper and Lower Bakken Shales. Where cement is present, charge is absent. This is a controlling factor on both the producibility of the Middle Bakken and stakeholders’ resultant profit margins. The distribution of UV fluorescence on Middle Bakken cores portrays a clear distinction between the presence or absence of carbonate cement. This qualitative assessment has guided further work into understanding the geochemical controls on the genesis of such cement. An understanding of the genetic (and diagenetic) history may lead to our ability to predict the distribution of cement across the Williston Basin and improve operators’ performance. Isotopic and mineralogical fingerprints may unlock the complex geochemical story of the Middle Bakken. Authigenic cementation is often attributed to the anaerobic oxidation of biogenic-methane in the shallow subsurface (methanogenic origins). Oxidation generates bicarbonate, which reacts to calcium in the subsurface waters and forms cement. By analyzing carbon isotopes of Middle Bakken cement it may be possible to determine whether the early release of biogenic methane from the Lower Bakken Shale led to the formation of carbonate cement. A detailed understanding of the formation and distribution of carbonate cement among a select group of North Dakota cores may then be extrapolated throughout the Williston Basin. This will aid operators in the optimization of their developmental initiatives. Panel_15082 Panel_15082 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The main reservoirs of the Lower Cretaceous rift section (Lagoa Feia Group) from the Campos Basin, eastern Brazil, correspond to bioclastic (bivalves and ostracodes) grainstones and rudstones (commonly known as “coquinas”). The integration of seismic, sedimentologic and petrographic evidence has shown that the carbonate deposits occur in diverse geographic and/or stratigraphic positions, both on basement highs and lows throughout the rift section. Carbonate bioclasts are usually mixed in various proportions to stevensite ooids and peloids, and to siliciclastic grains. This mixture was interpreted as a product of re-sedimentation through gravitational flows, triggered by tectonic events along the lake margins. The diagenetic evolution of the rudstones was strongly influenced by the early diagenetic transformation of the bivalve bioclasts. Their aragonitic original composition is indicated by widespread early neomorphism preceding cementation and compaction. While some bioclasts were partially dissolved, generating intraparticle pores that were early cemented by drusiform calcite, most were replaced by coarse calcite mosaic containing ghosts of the foliated structure of the original shells. In contrast, the calcitic ostracode bioclasts are largely non-recrystallized, retaining their original microcrystalline texture. The early stabilization of the bivalve bioclasts to coarsely-crystalline, low-Mg calcite, together with partial eodiagenetic cementation by blocky or drusiform mosaic calcite, inhibited compaction, favoring preservation of interparticle porosity. However, rudstones with significant amounts of stevensitic and/or siliciclastic grains were strongly cemented due to the enhanced replacement and nucleation on such particles. Bioclasts dolomitization and dolomite cementation are localized features, but silicification and cementation by chalcedony and drusiform quartz are relatively common. Other minor diagenetic phases include smectite rims, selective dissolution of stevensite ooids and peloids, authigenesis of kaolinite (dickite?) and barite. Understanding the diagenetic evolution of the bioclastic rudstones is essential to decrease the exploration risks of similar reservoirs in new areas of the Campos Basin and to increase recovery from producing oilfields. The main reservoirs of the Lower Cretaceous rift section (Lagoa Feia Group) from the Campos Basin, eastern Brazil, correspond to bioclastic (bivalves and ostracodes) grainstones and rudstones (commonly known as “coquinas”). The integration of seismic, sedimentologic and petrographic evidence has shown that the carbonate deposits occur in diverse geographic and/or stratigraphic positions, both on basement highs and lows throughout the rift section. Carbonate bioclasts are usually mixed in various proportions to stevensite ooids and peloids, and to siliciclastic grains. This mixture was interpreted as a product of re-sedimentation through gravitational flows, triggered by tectonic events along the lake margins. The diagenetic evolution of the rudstones was strongly influenced by the early diagenetic transformation of the bivalve bioclasts. Their aragonitic original composition is indicated by widespread early neomorphism preceding cementation and compaction. While some bioclasts were partially dissolved, generating intraparticle pores that were early cemented by drusiform calcite, most were replaced by coarse calcite mosaic containing ghosts of the foliated structure of the original shells. In contrast, the calcitic ostracode bioclasts are largely non-recrystallized, retaining their original microcrystalline texture. The early stabilization of the bivalve bioclasts to coarsely-crystalline, low-Mg calcite, together with partial eodiagenetic cementation by blocky or drusiform mosaic calcite, inhibited compaction, favoring preservation of interparticle porosity. However, rudstones with significant amounts of stevensitic and/or siliciclastic grains were strongly cemented due to the enhanced replacement and nucleation on such particles. Bioclasts dolomitization and dolomite cementation are localized features, but silicification and cementation by chalcedony and drusiform quartz are relatively common. Other minor diagenetic phases include smectite rims, selective dissolution of stevensite ooids and peloids, authigenesis of kaolinite (dickite?) and barite. Understanding the diagenetic evolution of the bioclastic rudstones is essential to decrease the exploration risks of similar reservoirs in new areas of the Campos Basin and to increase recovery from producing oilfields. Panel_15080 Panel_15080 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The upper Katian Red River Formation is an overall shallowing (and “brining”) upward supersequence reaching a thickness of more than ~200 meters in the epicratonic Williston Basin depocenter in North Dakota. This study is based on a detailed bed-by-bed analysis of three thickest and stratigraphically most complete cores of formation in North Dakota. Bulk carbonate powders of 223 limestone and dolomite samples collected at 30-90 cm intervals were analyzed for stable carbon isotopes. Forty thin-sections representative of major facies from the studied cores were petrographically analyzed, and twelve non-covered thin-sections were examined using cathodoluminescence microscopy. Carbon-isotope values of shallow-marine Red River carbonates vary from -3‰ to +1.7‰ in limestone, and from -0.7‰ to +2‰ in dolomite; such similar values suggest that carbon was rock buffered, and could be representing the original marine d13C record. The d13C trend can be subdivided into eight stages characterized by three major excursions to positive d13C values that can be correlated across the Williston Basin. The first excursion with an amplitude of up to+2‰ occurs in C laminated member. The second excursion reaches amplitude of +2‰ within the B burrowed member. Both excursions occur within the upper Katian Aphelognathus divergens conodont Zone. The third excursion with an amplitude of +2‰ to +4‰ occurs in the middle part of the A interval. The different overall trend and absolute d13C values between the Williston Basin and the Cincinnati Region suggest a lack of exchange between waters of the Williston Basin and the Midcontinent, and consequently the influence of different regional environmental processes characteristic of a large, periodically isolated Williston Basin, coupled with a different diagenetic histories. Fine crystal size, lack of zoning, and non-obliterated porosity in the dolomites sampled for stable isotopes, coupled with their intimate association with the overlying evaporites, suggests a hypersaline-brine, early replacive origin for the bulk of the dolomite. Dark orange to red luminescence of both laminated and burrowed dolomites suggests their similar dolomitization history, and diagenetic stabilization under reducing conditions. The investigated interval in the upper part of the Red River Formation in North Dakota provides one of the most complete upper Katian (post-Waynesville excursion and pre-Hirnatian excursion) d13C records available in North America. The upper Katian Red River Formation is an overall shallowing (and “brining”) upward supersequence reaching a thickness of more than ~200 meters in the epicratonic Williston Basin depocenter in North Dakota. This study is based on a detailed bed-by-bed analysis of three thickest and stratigraphically most complete cores of formation in North Dakota. Bulk carbonate powders of 223 limestone and dolomite samples collected at 30-90 cm intervals were analyzed for stable carbon isotopes. Forty thin-sections representative of major facies from the studied cores were petrographically analyzed, and twelve non-covered thin-sections were examined using cathodoluminescence microscopy. Carbon-isotope values of shallow-marine Red River carbonates vary from -3‰ to +1.7‰ in limestone, and from -0.7‰ to +2‰ in dolomite; such similar values suggest that carbon was rock buffered, and could be representing the original marine d13C record. The d13C trend can be subdivided into eight stages characterized by three major excursions to positive d13C values that can be correlated across the Williston Basin. The first excursion with an amplitude of up to+2‰ occurs in C laminated member. The second excursion reaches amplitude of +2‰ within the B burrowed member. Both excursions occur within the upper Katian Aphelognathus divergens conodont Zone. The third excursion with an amplitude of +2‰ to +4‰ occurs in the middle part of the A interval. The different overall trend and absolute d13C values between the Williston Basin and the Cincinnati Region suggest a lack of exchange between waters of the Williston Basin and the Midcontinent, and consequently the influence of different regional environmental processes characteristic of a large, periodically isolated Williston Basin, coupled with a different diagenetic histories. Fine crystal size, lack of zoning, and non-obliterated porosity in the dolomites sampled for stable isotopes, coupled with their intimate association with the overlying evaporites, suggests a hypersaline-brine, early replacive origin for the bulk of the dolomite. Dark orange to red luminescence of both laminated and burrowed dolomites suggests their similar dolomitization history, and diagenetic stabilization under reducing conditions. The investigated interval in the upper part of the Red River Formation in North Dakota provides one of the most complete upper Katian (post-Waynesville excursion and pre-Hirnatian excursion) d13C records available in North America. Panel_15084 Panel_15084 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14459 Panel_14459 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Although extensive researches have been conducted on the geological modeling of fluvial facies, some problems still need to be solved on how to characterize the strong heterogeneity of both fluvial facies architecture and reservoir quality. This paper, taking one low permeable fluvial gas field in Ordos Basin as an example, carries out studies on a new geological modeling method to characterize the strong heterogeneity of fluvial reservoirs, which has significant meaning for achieving the goal of optimizing and adjusting development plan and providing guidelines for similar reservoirs. The study area, Su6 Experimental Area, Ordos Basin, has about 270 wells, with minimum well space of 204m and a systematic coring of 87m approximately. The main frequency of 3D seismic data is 28Hz, covering an area of roughly 256km2. The Datong fluvial outcrops in east of Ordos Basin, which is comparable to the study area, is selected to study the quantitative architectural features of fluvial reservoirs to guide the subsurface architecture modeling. A set of new geological modeling methods integrating subsurface and surface data is proposed as follows: (1) The object-based modeling algorithm is applied to build the reservoir architecture model. The key to the object-based modeling algorithm is the quantitative architecture information including the superimposition styles and scale of sand bodies, which can be based on the researches of Datong outcrop analogues. New algorithms are programed to characterize the various superimposition styles quantitatively. And quantitative scale of fluvial sand bodies is considered to control the spatial distribution of fluvial sand bodies more rationally. (2) On the basis of architecture model, the porosity model is established applying sequential Gaussian simulation method controlled with reservoir architecture model and trended with the impedance data derived from logging constrained inversion as the second variable. Permeability model then is obtained based on the same idea. The architecture and property model can be used to evaluate the compartmentalization and heterogeneity of the fluvial reservoir which is crucial to the preparation of development plan. Although extensive researches have been conducted on the geological modeling of fluvial facies, some problems still need to be solved on how to characterize the strong heterogeneity of both fluvial facies architecture and reservoir quality. This paper, taking one low permeable fluvial gas field in Ordos Basin as an example, carries out studies on a new geological modeling method to characterize the strong heterogeneity of fluvial reservoirs, which has significant meaning for achieving the goal of optimizing and adjusting development plan and providing guidelines for similar reservoirs. The study area, Su6 Experimental Area, Ordos Basin, has about 270 wells, with minimum well space of 204m and a systematic coring of 87m approximately. The main frequency of 3D seismic data is 28Hz, covering an area of roughly 256km². The Datong fluvial outcrops in east of Ordos Basin, which is comparable to the study area, is selected to study the quantitative architectural features of fluvial reservoirs to guide the subsurface architecture modeling. A set of new geological modeling methods integrating subsurface and surface data is proposed as follows: (1) The object-based modeling algorithm is applied to build the reservoir architecture model. The key to the object-based modeling algorithm is the quantitative architecture information including the superimposition styles and scale of sand bodies, which can be based on the researches of Datong outcrop analogues. New algorithms are programed to characterize the various superimposition styles quantitatively. And quantitative scale of fluvial sand bodies is considered to control the spatial distribution of fluvial sand bodies more rationally. (2) On the basis of architecture model, the porosity model is established applying sequential Gaussian simulation method controlled with reservoir architecture model and trended with the impedance data derived from logging constrained inversion as the second variable. Permeability model then is obtained based on the same idea. The architecture and property model can be used to evaluate the compartmentalization and heterogeneity of the fluvial reservoir which is crucial to the preparation of development plan. Panel_15238 Panel_15238 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

This paper aims to research the impact of different depositional texture types on reservoir quality and oiliness. We studied the First Subsection of Funing formation in Gaoyou Sag, Subei Basin and the Chang8 subsection of Yanchang formation in Longdong area of Ordos Basin, both of which are tight sandstone reservoirs characterized as shallow water deltas. These two reservoirs have a plentiful of bedding types and a heterogeneity in oil-bearingness. Base on cores from 38 wells in Gaoyou Sag and 54 wells in Ordos Basin, we summarize three general rules: 1) in none-massive bedding cores, oily parts extension corresponds with that of bedding series interfaces. 2) the carbonate cementation belt extends in the direction of the bedding series interfaces. 3) in a given depositional series, cores with massive beddings are the most probable to be oil-bearing, then parallel beddings take second place, the cross beddings are the least probable. Thin slices and casting thin slices are used to observe the initial ingredients and diagenesis of different parts in a given series of bedding. We find that in a given parallel bedding series or a cross bedding one, the average point granularity correlates with the range of which the point is to the series interface. However, in massive bedding sandstones, the average granularity distributes more uniformly. In different bedding types of sandstones, original deposits anisotropism differs with bedding types. Reservoir quality is initially controlled by deposits anisotropism. Different parts of a bedding series play differential role for fluids-- the finer part may be flow barrier while the coarser part may be preponderant flow path. In the interaction of reservoir pores and formation fluids, the role of different parts in a bedding series may change. The change corresponds with diagenesis or oil injection and reservoir quality anisotropism. This process is simpler in typical parallel bedding or cross beddings (climbing ripple bedding, tabular cross bedding and wedge cross bedding). It will be more complicated in transitional beddings. Using water drive experiment of sandstone samples and point porosity and permeability measurement method, a qualitative flow model for parallel bedding and simple cross beddings sandstones is proposed to simulate the process of interaction of reservoir quality and formation fluids in diagenetic evolution process. This paper aims to research the impact of different depositional texture types on reservoir quality and oiliness. We studied the First Subsection of Funing formation in Gaoyou Sag, Subei Basin and the Chang8 subsection of Yanchang formation in Longdong area of Ordos Basin, both of which are tight sandstone reservoirs characterized as shallow water deltas. These two reservoirs have a plentiful of bedding types and a heterogeneity in oil-bearingness. Base on cores from 38 wells in Gaoyou Sag and 54 wells in Ordos Basin, we summarize three general rules: 1) in none-massive bedding cores, oily parts extension corresponds with that of bedding series interfaces. 2) the carbonate cementation belt extends in the direction of the bedding series interfaces. 3) in a given depositional series, cores with massive beddings are the most probable to be oil-bearing, then parallel beddings take second place, the cross beddings are the least probable. Thin slices and casting thin slices are used to observe the initial ingredients and diagenesis of different parts in a given series of bedding. We find that in a given parallel bedding series or a cross bedding one, the average point granularity correlates with the range of which the point is to the series interface. However, in massive bedding sandstones, the average granularity distributes more uniformly. In different bedding types of sandstones, original deposits anisotropism differs with bedding types. Reservoir quality is initially controlled by deposits anisotropism. Different parts of a bedding series play differential role for fluids-- the finer part may be flow barrier while the coarser part may be preponderant flow path. In the interaction of reservoir pores and formation fluids, the role of different parts in a bedding series may change. The change corresponds with diagenesis or oil injection and reservoir quality anisotropism. This process is simpler in typical parallel bedding or cross beddings (climbing ripple bedding, tabular cross bedding and wedge cross bedding). It will be more complicated in transitional beddings. Using water drive experiment of sandstone samples and point porosity and permeability measurement method, a qualitative flow model for parallel bedding and simple cross beddings sandstones is proposed to simulate the process of interaction of reservoir quality and formation fluids in diagenetic evolution process. Panel_15237 Panel_15237 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin is the best known tight oil petroleum system in China and accounts for the majority of the tight oil production in the country. The formation consists of three members with the Chang-7 organic-rich shale in the middle as the source and the Chang-6 and Chang-8 immediately above and below as reservoirs. Variabilities in production data suggest that sedimentary heterogeneities play a key role in controlling the sweet spot distribution. We applied SEDSIM, a three-dimensional stratigraphic forward modelling program, to simulate the sedimentary heterogeneities of the Yanchang Formation depositional system by considering key depositional processes and parameters affecting the lacustrine and deltaic deposition including tectonic subsidence, lake level fluctuation, sediment supply, and pre-existing topography. A nest-modelling approach was employed to model both basin scale (295x455 km) and reservoir scale (40x40 km) heterogeneities with spatial resolutions of 5 km and 1 km, respectively. The vertical (temporal) resolution is 50 kyr. The simulations show that the sedimentary heterogeneities were caused by the interplay of the initial basin configuration and topography, lake level fluctuations and sediment supply. Large-scale shallow-water deltas from multiple sources migrate toward the southeastly orientated lake basin in response to lake level fluctuations. The deltaic plain is dominated by distributary channel sandbodies, while the delta front is characterized by sheet sands as a result of shallow-water delta migration. The total amount of sediment discharge from the northeast and southwest sources accounts for 80% of the sediment load. The Chang-8 member has better reservoir properties and sandbody connectivities compared with that for the Chang-6 member. The sandbodies in the delta plain and delta front with porosity range of 7%-13% are the sweet spot targets for future exploration. The Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin is the best known tight oil petroleum system in China and accounts for the majority of the tight oil production in the country. The formation consists of three members with the Chang-7 organic-rich shale in the middle as the source and the Chang-6 and Chang-8 immediately above and below as reservoirs. Variabilities in production data suggest that sedimentary heterogeneities play a key role in controlling the sweet spot distribution. We applied SEDSIM, a three-dimensional stratigraphic forward modelling program, to simulate the sedimentary heterogeneities of the Yanchang Formation depositional system by considering key depositional processes and parameters affecting the lacustrine and deltaic deposition including tectonic subsidence, lake level fluctuation, sediment supply, and pre-existing topography. A nest-modelling approach was employed to model both basin scale (295x455 km) and reservoir scale (40x40 km) heterogeneities with spatial resolutions of 5 km and 1 km, respectively. The vertical (temporal) resolution is 50 kyr. The simulations show that the sedimentary heterogeneities were caused by the interplay of the initial basin configuration and topography, lake level fluctuations and sediment supply. Large-scale shallow-water deltas from multiple sources migrate toward the southeastly orientated lake basin in response to lake level fluctuations. The deltaic plain is dominated by distributary channel sandbodies, while the delta front is characterized by sheet sands as a result of shallow-water delta migration. The total amount of sediment discharge from the northeast and southwest sources accounts for 80% of the sediment load. The Chang-8 member has better reservoir properties and sandbody connectivities compared with that for the Chang-6 member. The sandbodies in the delta plain and delta front with porosity range of 7%-13% are the sweet spot targets for future exploration. Panel_15233 Panel_15233 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The stratigraphic expression of slope channel and channel-lobe transition zone (CLTZ) deposits is highly varied as a consequence of distinct formative processes, associated with turbidity current interaction with confined to unconfined seafloor morphology. Architectural element end members include low aspect ratio channel elements and higher aspect ratio sedimentary bodies that form in response to diminished confinement. The protracted evolution of each depositional setting results in distinct stratigraphic stacking patterns of sedimentary bodies. In outcropping slope deposits of the Cretaceous Tres Pasos Fm, Chile, a channel system outcrop (Location: Laguna Figueroa) consisting of 18 channel elements is considered. Elements are aggradationally stacked (120 m gross stratal thickness) with limited lateral offset (<150 m) amongst successive channels. Conversely, over a similar gross interval (110 m), CLTZ deposits (Location: Arroyo Picana) are characterized by variable sedimentary bodies, including channelforms and higher aspect ratio bodies that are not stacked in an organized pattern. Important considerations at the foundation of this research include: (1) How would these distinct stratal sections appear in 3D seismic data? (2) Would seismic reflections accurately portray the stratigraphic architecture evident in the outcrops? In order to answer these questions, 3D seismic reflectivity models (ranging from 180-15 Hz peak frequency) were constructed for both slope channel and CLTZ outcrops. The 18 stacked channel elements from the Figueroa outcrop can mostly be discerned at 180 Hz, however, at 30 Hz the amalgam of elements is manifest by 3 oversized channelform bodies, or “channel complexes”. Key seismic reflections are highly composite in nature, blending responses from the varied component elements. These 3 channel complexes represent a useful proxy for channelized sandstone distribution. However, predictable intrachannel facies patterns derived from outcrop characterization of channel elements (i.e., sandy axes to muddy margins) cannot be applied at the scale of the channelforms apparent in the seismic data. Likewise, complex stratigraphic architecture evident at180 Hz for the CLTZ outcrop is largely obliterated at 30 Hz. Although zones of thickest sandstone may be interpreted, the interconnectivity of the various depositional elements is highly simplified. Results from this research close the gap for sub-seismic scale reservoir quality interpretation. The stratigraphic expression of slope channel and channel-lobe transition zone (CLTZ) deposits is highly varied as a consequence of distinct formative processes, associated with turbidity current interaction with confined to unconfined seafloor morphology. Architectural element end members include low aspect ratio channel elements and higher aspect ratio sedimentary bodies that form in response to diminished confinement. The protracted evolution of each depositional setting results in distinct stratigraphic stacking patterns of sedimentary bodies. In outcropping slope deposits of the Cretaceous Tres Pasos Fm, Chile, a channel system outcrop (Location: Laguna Figueroa) consisting of 18 channel elements is considered. Elements are aggradationally stacked (120 m gross stratal thickness) with limited lateral offset (<150 m) amongst successive channels. Conversely, over a similar gross interval (110 m), CLTZ deposits (Location: Arroyo Picana) are characterized by variable sedimentary bodies, including channelforms and higher aspect ratio bodies that are not stacked in an organized pattern. Important considerations at the foundation of this research include: (1) How would these distinct stratal sections appear in 3D seismic data? (2) Would seismic reflections accurately portray the stratigraphic architecture evident in the outcrops? In order to answer these questions, 3D seismic reflectivity models (ranging from 180-15 Hz peak frequency) were constructed for both slope channel and CLTZ outcrops. The 18 stacked channel elements from the Figueroa outcrop can mostly be discerned at 180 Hz, however, at 30 Hz the amalgam of elements is manifest by 3 oversized channelform bodies, or “channel complexes”. Key seismic reflections are highly composite in nature, blending responses from the varied component elements. These 3 channel complexes represent a useful proxy for channelized sandstone distribution. However, predictable intrachannel facies patterns derived from outcrop characterization of channel elements (i.e., sandy axes to muddy margins) cannot be applied at the scale of the channelforms apparent in the seismic data. Likewise, complex stratigraphic architecture evident at180 Hz for the CLTZ outcrop is largely obliterated at 30 Hz. Although zones of thickest sandstone may be interpreted, the interconnectivity of the various depositional elements is highly simplified. Results from this research close the gap for sub-seismic scale reservoir quality interpretation. Panel_15236 Panel_15236 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Depositional architectures in tidal successions reflect a complex mixture of fluvial, tidal, and marine environments, making their recognition and interpretation difficult. Because tide-dominated and tidally-influenced reservoirs account for a significant portion of petroleum reserves, predictive facies models derived from outcrops are invaluable. Outcrops of Cretaceous strata in Tibbet Canyon, southern Kaiparowits Plateau of southern Utah, offer insight into the regional extent and internal complexity of tidal processes. This study captures the architecture of a mixed-energy estuarine succession preserved as part of the John Henry Member fluvial to marine transition of the Upper Cretaceous (Santonian-Campanian) Straight Cliffs Formation. A detailed interpretation of an 8 m by 500 m bayhead delta is presented, highlighting its internal architecture as well as its relationship to underlying tidal bars and overlying coastal plain strata. Superficially, bayhead deltas and tidally influenced point bars have similar, IHS-dominated architectures, but they form by different processes and have different architectural expressions (progradational and coarsening upward vs. lateral accretion and fining upward, respectively). As such, they behave quite differently as reservoirs. Terrestrial LiDAR, outcrop photomosaics, detailed measured sections, and paleocurrents were used to describe facies and facies associations and interpret architectural elements. LiDAR scans provide point clouds tied to RGB values for a photo-realistic geospatial outcrop reconstruction of a complex vertical succession. The ~65 m thick interval is an excellent example of inner-middle estuary succession consisting of elongate, sigmoidal tidal bars, estuarine point bars, bayhead deltas, and tidal flat deposits. The stratigraphic evolution of an estuarine succession from tidal bars to a bayhead delta overlain by coastal plain deposits was captured in a conceptual model. Within the bayhead delta, beds thicken and coarsen vertically, and are composed of very fine- to medium-grained trough cross-stratified, rippled (some climbing), planar laminated, and planar cross-stratified sandstones and interbedded mudstone/siltstone. Modeling results are compared to published studies of IHS point bar models to demonstrate the impact of distinct stacking patterns and geometric relations of different IHS deposits on reservoir character. Depositional architectures in tidal successions reflect a complex mixture of fluvial, tidal, and marine environments, making their recognition and interpretation difficult. Because tide-dominated and tidally-influenced reservoirs account for a significant portion of petroleum reserves, predictive facies models derived from outcrops are invaluable. Outcrops of Cretaceous strata in Tibbet Canyon, southern Kaiparowits Plateau of southern Utah, offer insight into the regional extent and internal complexity of tidal processes. This study captures the architecture of a mixed-energy estuarine succession preserved as part of the John Henry Member fluvial to marine transition of the Upper Cretaceous (Santonian-Campanian) Straight Cliffs Formation. A detailed interpretation of an 8 m by 500 m bayhead delta is presented, highlighting its internal architecture as well as its relationship to underlying tidal bars and overlying coastal plain strata. Superficially, bayhead deltas and tidally influenced point bars have similar, IHS-dominated architectures, but they form by different processes and have different architectural expressions (progradational and coarsening upward vs. lateral accretion and fining upward, respectively). As such, they behave quite differently as reservoirs. Terrestrial LiDAR, outcrop photomosaics, detailed measured sections, and paleocurrents were used to describe facies and facies associations and interpret architectural elements. LiDAR scans provide point clouds tied to RGB values for a photo-realistic geospatial outcrop reconstruction of a complex vertical succession. The ~65 m thick interval is an excellent example of inner-middle estuary succession consisting of elongate, sigmoidal tidal bars, estuarine point bars, bayhead deltas, and tidal flat deposits. The stratigraphic evolution of an estuarine succession from tidal bars to a bayhead delta overlain by coastal plain deposits was captured in a conceptual model. Within the bayhead delta, beds thicken and coarsen vertically, and are composed of very fine- to medium-grained trough cross-stratified, rippled (some climbing), planar laminated, and planar cross-stratified sandstones and interbedded mudstone/siltstone. Modeling results are compared to published studies of IHS point bar models to demonstrate the impact of distinct stacking patterns and geometric relations of different IHS deposits on reservoir character. Panel_15226 Panel_15226 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The two-point geostatistics and the new development of multiple point statistics (MPS) (Yin et al., 2009; Strebelle and Journel, 2001; Strebelle, 2002; Liu Y et al., 2004; Caers and Zhang, 2004; Ezequiel and González, 2008; Arpat and Caers, 2007)are well developed based on the basic assumption that reservoir statistical properties do not change with the location, which is called as statistical properties of ‘stationary’. However, in the delta reservoir, sedimentary type changes in different positions, the model is not accepted as fluvial one with MPS based on the theory of stationary hypothesis (Caers and Zhang, 2004). The above issue, which is the so called statistical property of ‘non-stationary’, is a difficult problem in MPS. In this paper, based on the phenomenon of reservoir sedimentary patterns varying with location, a new MPS method for modeling non-stationary geological phenomenon is proposed. The method firstly scan data event and its center position information in training image at the same time. Then, the choice of the most matching data event is constrain using the data event matching and the closest distance between data events center points. Thirdly, taking local integral replacement of data events to represent the depositional mode so as to achieve better reproduction of spatial and temporal variation of non-stationary data and describe reservoir geological characteristics. Because the distance is calculated with the relative central position, training images can be differently scaled with the simulation region,which avoid the problem faced by the distanced-based mps method(Hu et al,2013). The whole scanning training image can avoid the data events clustering and all sedimentary patterns to equal consideration. Giving weights on distance function can be moderately characterization of reservoir heterogeneity in various directions. This method is compared with the traditional Snesim method using a synthesized 3-D training image of Poyang Lake and a reservoir model of Shengli oilfield in China. The results indicated that the new method can better reproduce the non-stationary characteristics than the traditional one, and is more suitable for the simulation of delta-front deposits.. These results demonstrated the new method is a powerful tool to model reservoir with non-stationary characteristics. The two-point geostatistics and the new development of multiple point statistics (MPS) (Yin et al., 2009; Strebelle and Journel, 2001; Strebelle, 2002; Liu Y et al., 2004; Caers and Zhang, 2004; Ezequiel and González, 2008; Arpat and Caers, 2007)are well developed based on the basic assumption that reservoir statistical properties do not change with the location, which is called as statistical properties of ‘stationary’. However, in the delta reservoir, sedimentary type changes in different positions, the model is not accepted as fluvial one with MPS based on the theory of stationary hypothesis (Caers and Zhang, 2004). The above issue, which is the so called statistical property of ‘non-stationary’, is a difficult problem in MPS. In this paper, based on the phenomenon of reservoir sedimentary patterns varying with location, a new MPS method for modeling non-stationary geological phenomenon is proposed. The method firstly scan data event and its center position information in training image at the same time. Then, the choice of the most matching data event is constrain using the data event matching and the closest distance between data events center points. Thirdly, taking local integral replacement of data events to represent the depositional mode so as to achieve better reproduction of spatial and temporal variation of non-stationary data and describe reservoir geological characteristics. Because the distance is calculated with the relative central position, training images can be differently scaled with the simulation region,which avoid the problem faced by the distanced-based mps method(Hu et al,2013). The whole scanning training image can avoid the data events clustering and all sedimentary patterns to equal consideration. Giving weights on distance function can be moderately characterization of reservoir heterogeneity in various directions. This method is compared with the traditional Snesim method using a synthesized 3-D training image of Poyang Lake and a reservoir model of Shengli oilfield in China. The results indicated that the new method can better reproduce the non-stationary characteristics than the traditional one, and is more suitable for the simulation of delta-front deposits.. These results demonstrated the new method is a powerful tool to model reservoir with non-stationary characteristics. Panel_15239 Panel_15239 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

An important hydrocarbon reservoir is hosted by the third member of the Shahejie Formation (Es3) in the Zhanhua Sag of the Bohai Bay Basin. Using lithology, wire-line logs and three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data in the southern slope of Sanhecun Block, Zhanhua Sag, we demonstrated the utility of stratal slice images for analyzing facies architecture and sediment-dispersal characters of complex depositional systems in Es3. The Es3, a Para-second-order sequence, can be subdivided into three third-order sequences (from base to top: SQ1, SQ2, and SQ3). The facies architecture was analyzed by using the seismic geomorphology approach based on 3-D seismic data. Sediments of the Es3 sequences were derived from the southern Chenjiazhuang Uplift via six major incised valleys, four of them associated with slope-break belt in the southern zone, and others in the southwestern zone. Seismic stratal slices reveal different characteristics of the channels and lobes between south and southwest from source to sink. On the basis of an integrated analysis of well log, core data, seismic facies based on multi-seismic attributes, three depositional environments (e.g., “fan-delta”, “shallow lacustrine” and “turbidite” facies) have been recognized. Stratal slices indicate that the depositional environments of these sequences were evolved from gravel- or sand-rich fan delta and turbidite to lacustrine mud, and lastly mixed sand-mud fan delta systems. The results of high resolution 3-D sedimentary systems analysis showed that the third-order sequence located in different system tracts of the second-order sequence would contribute to their system tracts with the different types and scales of depositional systems. Types of slope belt, subsidence rate, sediment provenance and their evolution joint control the sediment-dispersal characters in deposition area. The proposed sediment dispersal patterns may aid in the prediction of potential reservoir distribution. An important hydrocarbon reservoir is hosted by the third member of the Shahejie Formation (Es3) in the Zhanhua Sag of the Bohai Bay Basin. Using lithology, wire-line logs and three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data in the southern slope of Sanhecun Block, Zhanhua Sag, we demonstrated the utility of stratal slice images for analyzing facies architecture and sediment-dispersal characters of complex depositional systems in Es3. The Es3, a Para-second-order sequence, can be subdivided into three third-order sequences (from base to top: SQ1, SQ2, and SQ3). The facies architecture was analyzed by using the seismic geomorphology approach based on 3-D seismic data. Sediments of the Es3 sequences were derived from the southern Chenjiazhuang Uplift via six major incised valleys, four of them associated with slope-break belt in the southern zone, and others in the southwestern zone. Seismic stratal slices reveal different characteristics of the channels and lobes between south and southwest from source to sink. On the basis of an integrated analysis of well log, core data, seismic facies based on multi-seismic attributes, three depositional environments (e.g., “fan-delta”, “shallow lacustrine” and “turbidite” facies) have been recognized. Stratal slices indicate that the depositional environments of these sequences were evolved from gravel- or sand-rich fan delta and turbidite to lacustrine mud, and lastly mixed sand-mud fan delta systems. The results of high resolution 3-D sedimentary systems analysis showed that the third-order sequence located in different system tracts of the second-order sequence would contribute to their system tracts with the different types and scales of depositional systems. Types of slope belt, subsidence rate, sediment provenance and their evolution joint control the sediment-dispersal characters in deposition area. The proposed sediment dispersal patterns may aid in the prediction of potential reservoir distribution. Panel_15232 Panel_15232 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Pennsylvanian Granite Wash of the Anadarko Basin was deposited over a large area as a series of alluvial fans to fan deltas and deepwater deposits composed of clastic and carbonate sediments and detritus eroded from the uplifted Amarillo-Wichita ancient mountain front. For the Desmoinesian-age Colony Granite Wash, located in Washita and Custer counties, Oklahoma, deposits exhibit a complex stratigraphic architecture along a proximal-to-distal transect (south to north into the basin) with highly variable lithofacies and associated reservoir-rock properties. The stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and reservoir characteristics of the Colony Granite Wash are established based on cores, thin sections, well logs, and 3-D seismic data. The Colony Granite Wash consists of three sandstone-rich stratigraphic intervals (A, B and C) that are each bounded by laterally extensive shales and associated marine-flooding surfaces. The shales are recognizable in core and on well logs and are useful for correlation. Detailed core descriptions and well-log characteristics show that the Colony Granite Wash varies from proximal deposits consisting of chaotic conglomeratic debris flows that are highly discontinuous to laterally continuous distal flows displaying cyclic turbidite successions. The dominant lithofacies include calcareous and non-calcareous sandy upward-fining debris flows and calcareous and non-calcareous shales. The producing lithofacies, non-calcareous sandy debris flows, exhibit porosity values that range from 5% to 10.5% and permeability values that vary from 0.003 to 0.02 mD. Wireline-log response is calibrated to detailed lithofacies descriptions from core to establish a rock-type model and to estimate lithology/lithofacies logs in non-cored wells. The lithology and porosity logs are used to condition 3D facies and porosity models of the Granite Wash that show the impact of the stratigraphic architecture and lithofacies distribution on petrophysical properties and associated reserves. The Pennsylvanian Granite Wash of the Anadarko Basin was deposited over a large area as a series of alluvial fans to fan deltas and deepwater deposits composed of clastic and carbonate sediments and detritus eroded from the uplifted Amarillo-Wichita ancient mountain front. For the Desmoinesian-age Colony Granite Wash, located in Washita and Custer counties, Oklahoma, deposits exhibit a complex stratigraphic architecture along a proximal-to-distal transect (south to north into the basin) with highly variable lithofacies and associated reservoir-rock properties. The stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and reservoir characteristics of the Colony Granite Wash are established based on cores, thin sections, well logs, and 3-D seismic data. The Colony Granite Wash consists of three sandstone-rich stratigraphic intervals (A, B and C) that are each bounded by laterally extensive shales and associated marine-flooding surfaces. The shales are recognizable in core and on well logs and are useful for correlation. Detailed core descriptions and well-log characteristics show that the Colony Granite Wash varies from proximal deposits consisting of chaotic conglomeratic debris flows that are highly discontinuous to laterally continuous distal flows displaying cyclic turbidite successions. The dominant lithofacies include calcareous and non-calcareous sandy upward-fining debris flows and calcareous and non-calcareous shales. The producing lithofacies, non-calcareous sandy debris flows, exhibit porosity values that range from 5% to 10.5% and permeability values that vary from 0.003 to 0.02 mD. Wireline-log response is calibrated to detailed lithofacies descriptions from core to establish a rock-type model and to estimate lithology/lithofacies logs in non-cored wells. The lithology and porosity logs are used to condition 3D facies and porosity models of the Granite Wash that show the impact of the stratigraphic architecture and lithofacies distribution on petrophysical properties and associated reserves. Panel_15235 Panel_15235 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The western flank of the Golfo San Jorge Basin is home to a number of oil fields and thousands of wells, yet recovery factors are generally very low. Water-flooding has had a highly variable degree of success, probably due to a poor understanding of the reservoirs. These were traditionally interpreted and correlated as isolated sandstone bodies with very limited lateral extension and connectivity, and treated as internally homogenous. Correlations were highly interpreter-driven, and there was no hierarchy of sandstone bodies. Hence, the main purpose of this study was to understand and optimize the current water-flooding, and identify future opportunities. EGS is an anticline structure segmented by minor faults. The main reservoirs are the Cretaceous fluvial sandstone bodies of the Bajo Barreal Formation, deposited in a post rift setting influenced by volcanic activity. Reservoir characterization is challenging, sandstone bodies being only 2-5m thick, heterogeneous, finely interbedded with clay in an overall column thickness of 700m. Seismic resolution is poor, well log data is abundant but restricted to spontaneous potential, resistivity and occasionally density logs, core data is scarce, and a lack of PLT data makes 3D static and dynamic simulation the only way to estimate which sandstone bodies are actually being produced. A new methodology (Vertical Proportion Curve, VPC) was developed for correlation, aiming at reducing dependence on interpreter’s criteria, and based on averaging log data at the same interval from groups of wells belonging to the same fault block. The VPC clearly shows the most continuous shaly intervals (minimum energy in the system) used to subdivide the unit, and the higher net-to-gross (NTG) zones that will respond better to a water-flood. Based on this framework, successive 3D models were built, integrating the available seismic, outcrop, core and log data. Modelling effort was focused on a realistic representation of fluvial geometries, applying either Object Modeling or Multipoint Statistics. Different scenarios were tested, going back and forth with the dynamic simulation. The results from modelling show that connectivity is required to match the production history, and that most of the oil comes from a few intervals with higher NTG. As a result of this study, the understanding of the production hierarchies has enabled a number of improved oil recovery schemes to be considered, and possibly a polymer pilot. The western flank of the Golfo San Jorge Basin is home to a number of oil fields and thousands of wells, yet recovery factors are generally very low. Water-flooding has had a highly variable degree of success, probably due to a poor understanding of the reservoirs. These were traditionally interpreted and correlated as isolated sandstone bodies with very limited lateral extension and connectivity, and treated as internally homogenous. Correlations were highly interpreter-driven, and there was no hierarchy of sandstone bodies. Hence, the main purpose of this study was to understand and optimize the current water-flooding, and identify future opportunities. EGS is an anticline structure segmented by minor faults. The main reservoirs are the Cretaceous fluvial sandstone bodies of the Bajo Barreal Formation, deposited in a post rift setting influenced by volcanic activity. Reservoir characterization is challenging, sandstone bodies being only 2-5m thick, heterogeneous, finely interbedded with clay in an overall column thickness of 700m. Seismic resolution is poor, well log data is abundant but restricted to spontaneous potential, resistivity and occasionally density logs, core data is scarce, and a lack of PLT data makes 3D static and dynamic simulation the only way to estimate which sandstone bodies are actually being produced. A new methodology (Vertical Proportion Curve, VPC) was developed for correlation, aiming at reducing dependence on interpreter’s criteria, and based on averaging log data at the same interval from groups of wells belonging to the same fault block. The VPC clearly shows the most continuous shaly intervals (minimum energy in the system) used to subdivide the unit, and the higher net-to-gross (NTG) zones that will respond better to a water-flood. Based on this framework, successive 3D models were built, integrating the available seismic, outcrop, core and log data. Modelling effort was focused on a realistic representation of fluvial geometries, applying either Object Modeling or Multipoint Statistics. Different scenarios were tested, going back and forth with the dynamic simulation. The results from modelling show that connectivity is required to match the production history, and that most of the oil comes from a few intervals with higher NTG. As a result of this study, the understanding of the production hierarchies has enabled a number of improved oil recovery schemes to be considered, and possibly a polymer pilot. Panel_15229 Panel_15229 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Desmoinesian Granite Wash is a hydrocarbon-bearing interval within the Anadarko Basin of Oklahoma and Texas that was deposited as a series of alluvial fans, fan deltas, and deepwater deposits and is composed of clastic and carbonate sediments derived primarily from the Amarillo-Wichita Uplift. The Desmoinesian Granite Wash, located in Beckham County, Oklahoma and Wheeler County, Texas, includes a series of vertically stacked conglomerates and tight-gas sandstones and shales that exhibit a complex stratigraphic architecture, highly variable lithofacies, and correspondingly heterogeneous reservoir properties. The stratigraphic and reservoir characteristics of the Desmoinesian Granite Wash (Texas and Oklahoma) are established based on cores, thin sections, well logs, and XRF measurements. The Desmoinesian series deposits in the southern Anadarko Basin include interbedded sandstones and conglomerates that transition to layered and amalgamated sheet sandstones which thin laterally into mudstones to the north (basinward). There are at least four regional, correlatable flooding surfaces in the Desmoinesian that are also thought to be self-sourcing in this liquids-rich interval. Having reached thermal maturity roughly 250 Ma, the TOC content of shales throughout the interval ranges from 0-18% and contain a mixture of kerogen types (II and III). In Oklahoma, the Desmoinesian series is greatly over-pressured making drilling difficult. Porosity in this interval varies from 2-18% with low permeability values; generally < 0.1 mD. The Desmoinesian Granite Wash exhibits numerous and frequent lithofacies changes. XRF analyses of cuttings and cored intervals show how elemental concentrations vary laterally and stratigraphically with lithology, lithofacies, and clay concentrations. Calculated lithology and porosity logs are used as constraints in 3-D reservoir models to illustrate the controls that stratigraphic architecture and lithofacies play on petrophysical properties and related reservoir productivity. The Desmoinesian Granite Wash is a hydrocarbon-bearing interval within the Anadarko Basin of Oklahoma and Texas that was deposited as a series of alluvial fans, fan deltas, and deepwater deposits and is composed of clastic and carbonate sediments derived primarily from the Amarillo-Wichita Uplift. The Desmoinesian Granite Wash, located in Beckham County, Oklahoma and Wheeler County, Texas, includes a series of vertically stacked conglomerates and tight-gas sandstones and shales that exhibit a complex stratigraphic architecture, highly variable lithofacies, and correspondingly heterogeneous reservoir properties. The stratigraphic and reservoir characteristics of the Desmoinesian Granite Wash (Texas and Oklahoma) are established based on cores, thin sections, well logs, and XRF measurements. The Desmoinesian series deposits in the southern Anadarko Basin include interbedded sandstones and conglomerates that transition to layered and amalgamated sheet sandstones which thin laterally into mudstones to the north (basinward). There are at least four regional, correlatable flooding surfaces in the Desmoinesian that are also thought to be self-sourcing in this liquids-rich interval. Having reached thermal maturity roughly 250 Ma, the TOC content of shales throughout the interval ranges from 0-18% and contain a mixture of kerogen types (II and III). In Oklahoma, the Desmoinesian series is greatly over-pressured making drilling difficult. Porosity in this interval varies from 2-18% with low permeability values; generally < 0.1 mD. The Desmoinesian Granite Wash exhibits numerous and frequent lithofacies changes. XRF analyses of cuttings and cored intervals show how elemental concentrations vary laterally and stratigraphically with lithology, lithofacies, and clay concentrations. Calculated lithology and porosity logs are used as constraints in 3-D reservoir models to illustrate the controls that stratigraphic architecture and lithofacies play on petrophysical properties and related reservoir productivity. Panel_15234 Panel_15234 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Reservoirs in the Weicheng Oilfield, which were provided by Palaeogene Shahejie Formation Member 4 (Es4), formed during the initial and strongly chasmic stage of Dongpu Depression. Tectonic movement and the abrupt change of palaeogeomorphology generated greatest accommodation and resulted in development of faults and sudden changes of depositional facies, which controlled the physical properties. The prominent characteristics of strong heterogeneity made relatively low exploitation. Fine reservoir characterization were suggested to solve the layer and interlayer contradictions by geostatistical three-dimensional (3-D) modeling, which is on the basis of sedimentary analysis, and further prediction of residual oil distribution. Seismic and logging data were used to rearrange the fault; moreover, high-resolution stratigraphic theory was applied to construct the stratigraphic framework instead of classic. Two major depositional systems were recognized here: during lower submember sedimentary period, when Dongpu Depression began to rift, the flat paleotopography, shallow water of lake basin, deficient moisture, decreasing sediment-laden streams and vanish as a result of evaporation and transmission losses all led to rapid accumulation of sediments and contributed to the development of terminal fans; during upper submember period, when it came to the strong chasmic stage, lake basin expanded rapidly and water deepened, as a result, cones formed in underwater uplift, and thus bar and beach sands developed. The main reservoir sands are distributary channel in terminal fans and bars in shore and shallow lake facies, then the sheetflood and beach deposits. Three-dimensional (3-D) models provide insights into the distribution, the integrated external and internal structure, and the quantitative spatial orientation of oil sand body. Based on the depositional system analysis and structural modeling, the facies model guided by truncated Gaussian simulation and property models under the idea of facies-control was established in succession; by numerical simulation, the residual oil distribution was predicted and it was suggested that the movable oil mainly exists in sand pinchout area ,the imperfect pattern area and structural highs, and mostly appears as dispergated, lamellate, and continuous distribution; the areas with both high remaining oil saturation and reserve abundance will constitute the additional potential reservoirs. Reservoirs in the Weicheng Oilfield, which were provided by Palaeogene Shahejie Formation Member 4 (Es4), formed during the initial and strongly chasmic stage of Dongpu Depression. Tectonic movement and the abrupt change of palaeogeomorphology generated greatest accommodation and resulted in development of faults and sudden changes of depositional facies, which controlled the physical properties. The prominent characteristics of strong heterogeneity made relatively low exploitation. Fine reservoir characterization were suggested to solve the layer and interlayer contradictions by geostatistical three-dimensional (3-D) modeling, which is on the basis of sedimentary analysis, and further prediction of residual oil distribution. Seismic and logging data were used to rearrange the fault; moreover, high-resolution stratigraphic theory was applied to construct the stratigraphic framework instead of classic. Two major depositional systems were recognized here: during lower submember sedimentary period, when Dongpu Depression began to rift, the flat paleotopography, shallow water of lake basin, deficient moisture, decreasing sediment-laden streams and vanish as a result of evaporation and transmission losses all led to rapid accumulation of sediments and contributed to the development of terminal fans; during upper submember period, when it came to the strong chasmic stage, lake basin expanded rapidly and water deepened, as a result, cones formed in underwater uplift, and thus bar and beach sands developed. The main reservoir sands are distributary channel in terminal fans and bars in shore and shallow lake facies, then the sheetflood and beach deposits. Three-dimensional (3-D) models provide insights into the distribution, the integrated external and internal structure, and the quantitative spatial orientation of oil sand body. Based on the depositional system analysis and structural modeling, the facies model guided by truncated Gaussian simulation and property models under the idea of facies-control was established in succession; by numerical simulation, the residual oil distribution was predicted and it was suggested that the movable oil mainly exists in sand pinchout area ,the imperfect pattern area and structural highs, and mostly appears as dispergated, lamellate, and continuous distribution; the areas with both high remaining oil saturation and reserve abundance will constitute the additional potential reservoirs. Panel_15240 Panel_15240 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The John Henry Member (JHM) of the Straight Cliffs Formation exposed along the Kaiparowits Plateau provides a record of ~4 my of coastal plain to marginal marine deposition. Understanding the mechanisms influencing stratigraphic trends throughout the basin requires elucidating the controls responsible for spatial changes in alluvial architecture. In this study, we use the record of fluvial deposition preserved in the JHM to investigate the stratigraphic organization and distribution of fluvial channel-belt sand bodies. To this end, point pattern analysis techniques are applied on two datasets of 136 and 55 channel-belts collected from two outcrops in east Bull Canyon and northwest Rock House Cove, respectively (10 miles apart). These techniques classify the spatial organization of channel-belts as clustered, uniform, or random. Three point patterns analysis techniques are used - quadrat method, nearest neighbor method, and K-function - and all yield consistent classification of the spatial organization of channel-belts in all depositional units. A moving window spatial analysis is also performed on the two datasets to (1) describe the up-section changes in the stratigraphic arrangement of channel belts, (2) relate these changes to local trends in fluvial morphology, and (3) compare channel-belt stacking patterns between the two fluvial outcrops to discriminate between regional and local/autogenic controls on deposition. The analysis reveals three major trends in channel belt spatial organization starting with an increase in clustering throughout the lower stratigraphic interval, a progressive decline in clustering and increase in regularity in the middle interval, and a final trend of increasing randomness. Three roughly time-equivalent trends are also observed in the shoreline trajectory: progradation, retrogration, and aggradation, in this order. These trends, combined with data on channel-belt architecture, suggest long-term trends of increasing clustering are linked to trends of decreasing accommodation space. This interpretation is also supported by comparable stacking patterns of channel-belts in Bull Canyon and Rock House Cove, suggesting deposition in both locations was controlled by allogenic/regional processes. However, higher frequency clustering cycles are likely the result of autogenic processes such as compensational avulsion where small systems with limited lateral mobility require a higher avulsion frequency to build topography. The John Henry Member (JHM) of the Straight Cliffs Formation exposed along the Kaiparowits Plateau provides a record of ~4 my of coastal plain to marginal marine deposition. Understanding the mechanisms influencing stratigraphic trends throughout the basin requires elucidating the controls responsible for spatial changes in alluvial architecture. In this study, we use the record of fluvial deposition preserved in the JHM to investigate the stratigraphic organization and distribution of fluvial channel-belt sand bodies. To this end, point pattern analysis techniques are applied on two datasets of 136 and 55 channel-belts collected from two outcrops in east Bull Canyon and northwest Rock House Cove, respectively (10 miles apart). These techniques classify the spatial organization of channel-belts as clustered, uniform, or random. Three point patterns analysis techniques are used - quadrat method, nearest neighbor method, and K-function - and all yield consistent classification of the spatial organization of channel-belts in all depositional units. A moving window spatial analysis is also performed on the two datasets to (1) describe the up-section changes in the stratigraphic arrangement of channel belts, (2) relate these changes to local trends in fluvial morphology, and (3) compare channel-belt stacking patterns between the two fluvial outcrops to discriminate between regional and local/autogenic controls on deposition. The analysis reveals three major trends in channel belt spatial organization starting with an increase in clustering throughout the lower stratigraphic interval, a progressive decline in clustering and increase in regularity in the middle interval, and a final trend of increasing randomness. Three roughly time-equivalent trends are also observed in the shoreline trajectory: progradation, retrogration, and aggradation, in this order. These trends, combined with data on channel-belt architecture, suggest long-term trends of increasing clustering are linked to trends of decreasing accommodation space. This interpretation is also supported by comparable stacking patterns of channel-belts in Bull Canyon and Rock House Cove, suggesting deposition in both locations was controlled by allogenic/regional processes. However, higher frequency clustering cycles are likely the result of autogenic processes such as compensational avulsion where small systems with limited lateral mobility require a higher avulsion frequency to build topography. Panel_15227 Panel_15227 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Post-depositional remobilization and injection of sand are now recognized as common and important processes in deep-water clastic systems. Like igneous intrusions, sandstone intrusions exhibit geometries such as dykes, sills, cone- and saucer-shaped or wings. To form, these features require hydraulic fracturing of the overburden, fluidization and injection of depositional sand into the contemporaneous fracture network. Understanding mechanisms governing their overall architecture is essential because they provide conduits for fluids through impermeable overburden and they can act as hydrocarbon reservoirs (intrusive traps). The reservoir modelling of large-scale sandstone intrusion reservoirs is challenging due to imperfect characterisation of the intrusions, deficiencies in existing reservoir modelling approaches, and lack of geostatistics and associated modelling rules. The scaled physical modelling primarily addresses this problem by providing analogues which can be used to populate reservoir models when subsurface data are inadequate. Here, we use physical experiments to simulate sandstone intrusion emplacement. By progressively increasing (200Pa/min) the porewater pressure in a reservoir consisting of glass microspheres, a glass microsphere/water mixture was eventually injected into a contemporary hydraulic fracture network through low permeability host rock (a sand-gelatine mixture). The materials were scaled to allow comparison with large-scale geometries observed in the subsurface. We tested the influence of three parameters on the geometry of the intrusion complex: (1) reservoir geometry, (2) reservoir depth and (3) overburden cohesion. The experiments show that dome-shaped reservoirs favoured “wing” development at shallow depth, whereas narrow reservoirs favoured the formation of vertical dykes. Increasing depth caused wings to be initiated closer to the reservoir central axis up to a critical depth where dykes formed at the top of dome-shaped reservoirs. Physical experiments are a powerful tool to assess the dynamic of emplacement during intrusion processes. Fracture propagation velocity increased with decreasing overburden cohesion, with increasing depth and with increasing fracture dip. These experiments constrain intrusion architecture function of overburden behaviour and function of shape, depth and lateral extent of the overpressure source. These results may be helpful for 3D seismic intrusion recognition and interpretation. Post-depositional remobilization and injection of sand are now recognized as common and important processes in deep-water clastic systems. Like igneous intrusions, sandstone intrusions exhibit geometries such as dykes, sills, cone- and saucer-shaped or wings. To form, these features require hydraulic fracturing of the overburden, fluidization and injection of depositional sand into the contemporaneous fracture network. Understanding mechanisms governing their overall architecture is essential because they provide conduits for fluids through impermeable overburden and they can act as hydrocarbon reservoirs (intrusive traps). The reservoir modelling of large-scale sandstone intrusion reservoirs is challenging due to imperfect characterisation of the intrusions, deficiencies in existing reservoir modelling approaches, and lack of geostatistics and associated modelling rules. The scaled physical modelling primarily addresses this problem by providing analogues which can be used to populate reservoir models when subsurface data are inadequate. Here, we use physical experiments to simulate sandstone intrusion emplacement. By progressively increasing (200Pa/min) the porewater pressure in a reservoir consisting of glass microspheres, a glass microsphere/water mixture was eventually injected into a contemporary hydraulic fracture network through low permeability host rock (a sand-gelatine mixture). The materials were scaled to allow comparison with large-scale geometries observed in the subsurface. We tested the influence of three parameters on the geometry of the intrusion complex: (1) reservoir geometry, (2) reservoir depth and (3) overburden cohesion. The experiments show that dome-shaped reservoirs favoured “wing” development at shallow depth, whereas narrow reservoirs favoured the formation of vertical dykes. Increasing depth caused wings to be initiated closer to the reservoir central axis up to a critical depth where dykes formed at the top of dome-shaped reservoirs. Physical experiments are a powerful tool to assess the dynamic of emplacement during intrusion processes. Fracture propagation velocity increased with decreasing overburden cohesion, with increasing depth and with increasing fracture dip. These experiments constrain intrusion architecture function of overburden behaviour and function of shape, depth and lateral extent of the overpressure source. These results may be helpful for 3D seismic intrusion recognition and interpretation. Panel_15230 Panel_15230 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Deposition of sand and shale units from turbidity currents may form self-contained hydrocarbon systems. As such, units within these systems may consist of high quality sand reservoirs between layers of shale, which can act as both a source rock and a seal. Parameters such as grain size distribution/sorting; the volumetric concentration of sediment within the flow and; the initial flow dimensions control the character of each flow and its ability to transport sediment. Changes to these parameters influence the distance a sediment load can be transported and its rate of deposition. Using numerical models to simulate turbidite deposition in deep water settings can provide a quick and inexpensive means of predicting the position and quality of potential reservoir sands. The path a turbidity current follows and subsequent pattern of deposition is strongly influenced by the topography of the sea floor. Flows may be blocked, deflected or accelerated depending on the size of a ridge or scarp and the relative angle of incidence to the obstacle. Within Move™, Palaeo-bathymtic surfaces can be generated using 3D Kinematic Modelling module to restore deformation, sediment compaction and isostasy. Industry standard workflows typically involve the sequential backstripping of 2D interpretations to the desired Palaeosurface, to define the restoration sequence. The same workflow is then applied to 3D surfaces in order to obtain a restored palaeo-bathymetric surface. The geometry of the restored surfaces can be used to assess the deformation style at the scale of the study area and the sequence of deformation events which led to the development of the present-day structural geometry. Turbidity flows are then run across this surface to investigate sedimentation, for example to: test basin entry points; predict amount of sand; determine the net:gross relationship and distribution, or simulate multiple scenarios and compare the predicted sediment attributes to observed data from wells to identify the best-fitting flow or flows (inverse modelling). Predictive maps showing detailed grain size distribution analysis and reservoir quality of simulated turbidite deposits may be used as a reconnaissance tool to identify new targets or to analyse and explain depositional patterns of turbidity currents. In turn these numerical models can help to refine the restoration workflow and understand the implications of seabed structures. Deposition of sand and shale units from turbidity currents may form self-contained hydrocarbon systems. As such, units within these systems may consist of high quality sand reservoirs between layers of shale, which can act as both a source rock and a seal. Parameters such as grain size distribution/sorting; the volumetric concentration of sediment within the flow and; the initial flow dimensions control the character of each flow and its ability to transport sediment. Changes to these parameters influence the distance a sediment load can be transported and its rate of deposition. Using numerical models to simulate turbidite deposition in deep water settings can provide a quick and inexpensive means of predicting the position and quality of potential reservoir sands. The path a turbidity current follows and subsequent pattern of deposition is strongly influenced by the topography of the sea floor. Flows may be blocked, deflected or accelerated depending on the size of a ridge or scarp and the relative angle of incidence to the obstacle. Within Move™, Palaeo-bathymtic surfaces can be generated using 3D Kinematic Modelling module to restore deformation, sediment compaction and isostasy. Industry standard workflows typically involve the sequential backstripping of 2D interpretations to the desired Palaeosurface, to define the restoration sequence. The same workflow is then applied to 3D surfaces in order to obtain a restored palaeo-bathymetric surface. The geometry of the restored surfaces can be used to assess the deformation style at the scale of the study area and the sequence of deformation events which led to the development of the present-day structural geometry. Turbidity flows are then run across this surface to investigate sedimentation, for example to: test basin entry points; predict amount of sand; determine the net:gross relationship and distribution, or simulate multiple scenarios and compare the predicted sediment attributes to observed data from wells to identify the best-fitting flow or flows (inverse modelling). Predictive maps showing detailed grain size distribution analysis and reservoir quality of simulated turbidite deposits may be used as a reconnaissance tool to identify new targets or to analyse and explain depositional patterns of turbidity currents. In turn these numerical models can help to refine the restoration workflow and understand the implications of seabed structures. Panel_15231 Panel_15231 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Ancient siliciclastic basin margin systems are rarely exposed at outcrop with enough spatial continuity to fully explore both down-dip and lateral relationships. The Permian Fort Brown Formation is exposed in the Laingsburg-Karoo depocentre, South Africa, over an area of some 2500 km2 providing down dip control of >120 km and across strike control of up to 25 km. The 200-300 m thick mudstone-dominated slope to basin floor succession includes four sand-prone 30-70 m thick deep-water units, Units C to F, each of which is interpreted as a lowstand sequence set comprising three lowstand systems tracts. The sand-prone units are intercalated with regionally mapped 20-30 m thick mudstone drapes interpreted as combined transgressive to highstand sequence sets, together which build four composite sequences. A detailed correlation framework permits each system to be traced from slope valley-fill, through channel-levee dominated slope deposits to the distal fringe of basin-floor fans. Observation of the system margins provides sub-seismic detail on the extent and characteristics of gradually thinning and fining depositional architecture. Edge-to-edge reconstruction of each deep-water system has allowed the dynamic distribution and volumetric partitioning of sedimentary environments to be mapped, providing insight into autogenic and allogenic controls on the development of the Karoo basin margin. A systematic disparity in volumes is evident when the Fort Brown deep-water lowstand sequence sets are compared to published datasets of modern systems, where Fort Brown Fans occupy a similar area, but are an order of magnitude thinner. The issues may arise through differences in estimation technique from outcrop and seismic data or a difference in the architectural hierarchy being compared; alternatively the volume and rate of sediment supply to the late Permian Karoo Basin may have been affected by the climatic setting of the Pangean catchment. Either way, caution is therefore required in reconstructing ancient source-to-sink relationships and deepwater sand volumes using morphometric parameters derived from modern systems. Ancient siliciclastic basin margin systems are rarely exposed at outcrop with enough spatial continuity to fully explore both down-dip and lateral relationships. The Permian Fort Brown Formation is exposed in the Laingsburg-Karoo depocentre, South Africa, over an area of some 2500 km² providing down dip control of >120 km and across strike control of up to 25 km. The 200-300 m thick mudstone-dominated slope to basin floor succession includes four sand-prone 30-70 m thick deep-water units, Units C to F, each of which is interpreted as a lowstand sequence set comprising three lowstand systems tracts. The sand-prone units are intercalated with regionally mapped 20-30 m thick mudstone drapes interpreted as combined transgressive to highstand sequence sets, together which build four composite sequences. A detailed correlation framework permits each system to be traced from slope valley-fill, through channel-levee dominated slope deposits to the distal fringe of basin-floor fans. Observation of the system margins provides sub-seismic detail on the extent and characteristics of gradually thinning and fining depositional architecture. Edge-to-edge reconstruction of each deep-water system has allowed the dynamic distribution and volumetric partitioning of sedimentary environments to be mapped, providing insight into autogenic and allogenic controls on the development of the Karoo basin margin. A systematic disparity in volumes is evident when the Fort Brown deep-water lowstand sequence sets are compared to published datasets of modern systems, where Fort Brown Fans occupy a similar area, but are an order of magnitude thinner. The issues may arise through differences in estimation technique from outcrop and seismic data or a difference in the architectural hierarchy being compared; alternatively the volume and rate of sediment supply to the late Permian Karoo Basin may have been affected by the climatic setting of the Pangean catchment. Either way, caution is therefore required in reconstructing ancient source-to-sink relationships and deepwater sand volumes using morphometric parameters derived from modern systems. Panel_15228 Panel_15228 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14461 Panel_14461 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The middle member of the Devonian/Mississippian Bakken Formation is a primary target interval for hydrocarbon development in the Williston Basin, in part because of its proximity to source and seal intervals. Production from the middle member would not be possible without the formation of enhanced secondary porosity and the formation of microfractures during different diagenetic stages. The Sappington Formation in southwestern Montana is contemporaneous to the Bakken Formation and exhibits facies similar to the Bakken Formation facies in the Williston Basin, with a lower and upper organic rich mudstone, and a middle member that contains dolomitic siltstone to very-fine sandstone. Here we present results from a detailed diagenetic study of the middle member of the Sappington Formation along a 17 km outcrop transect in the Bridger Range in southwest Montana to distinguish the diagenetic changes associated with lateral lithologic heterogeneities observed on this reservoir scale. The diagenetic history of the Sappington Formation begins with mechanical compaction followed by several phases of mineralization. Amongst the mineral cements observed in the Sappington Formation are rhombic ferroan dolospar grains with non-ferroan rims, and calcite often replaced by dolomite. Other authigenic phases include quartz overgrowth, and euhedral pyrite crystals, and a series of clay minerals including illite and chlorite. In particular dolomitization and dedolomitization resulted in the formation of enhanced secondary porosity. In sections with high dolomite content, porosity and permeability are higher than sections with lower dolomite content. Microfractures are also present in the Sappington Fromation in both, the shale intervals and the middle Sappington interval. The formation of microfractures is likely related to tectonic forcing, pressure release from dewatering during an earlier diagenetic phase, or due to high lithostatic pressure during the hydrocarbon expulsion process. The results of this study indicate a complex diagenetic history for the Sappington Formation in southwest Montana. Understanding the distribution of the facies and the diagenetic stages that have occurred within the Sappington Formation can help to determine the reservoir heterogeneity along a single well path and help to find new drilling targets in the middle Bakken formation in the Williston Basin. The middle member of the Devonian/Mississippian Bakken Formation is a primary target interval for hydrocarbon development in the Williston Basin, in part because of its proximity to source and seal intervals. Production from the middle member would not be possible without the formation of enhanced secondary porosity and the formation of microfractures during different diagenetic stages. The Sappington Formation in southwestern Montana is contemporaneous to the Bakken Formation and exhibits facies similar to the Bakken Formation facies in the Williston Basin, with a lower and upper organic rich mudstone, and a middle member that contains dolomitic siltstone to very-fine sandstone. Here we present results from a detailed diagenetic study of the middle member of the Sappington Formation along a 17 km outcrop transect in the Bridger Range in southwest Montana to distinguish the diagenetic changes associated with lateral lithologic heterogeneities observed on this reservoir scale. The diagenetic history of the Sappington Formation begins with mechanical compaction followed by several phases of mineralization. Amongst the mineral cements observed in the Sappington Formation are rhombic ferroan dolospar grains with non-ferroan rims, and calcite often replaced by dolomite. Other authigenic phases include quartz overgrowth, and euhedral pyrite crystals, and a series of clay minerals including illite and chlorite. In particular dolomitization and dedolomitization resulted in the formation of enhanced secondary porosity. In sections with high dolomite content, porosity and permeability are higher than sections with lower dolomite content. Microfractures are also present in the Sappington Fromation in both, the shale intervals and the middle Sappington interval. The formation of microfractures is likely related to tectonic forcing, pressure release from dewatering during an earlier diagenetic phase, or due to high lithostatic pressure during the hydrocarbon expulsion process. The results of this study indicate a complex diagenetic history for the Sappington Formation in southwest Montana. Understanding the distribution of the facies and the diagenetic stages that have occurred within the Sappington Formation can help to determine the reservoir heterogeneity along a single well path and help to find new drilling targets in the middle Bakken formation in the Williston Basin. Panel_15251 Panel_15251 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Cardium tight oil play in the Pembina region is a highly heterogeneous reservoir dominated by intensely bioturbated muddy sandstones, with the majority of the effective porosity occuring in sand filled burrows that are encased in low permeability muddy sediments. Due to the heterogeneous nature of the porosity distribution within the Cardium Formation in the Pembina Field, routine core analysis methods and observations often fail to provide data that is characteristic of this reservoir. In order to assess reservoir properties with more accuracy and identify preferential analytical techniques that are best suited for interpretations of such bioturbated muddy sandstone reservoirs, a broad range of additional data sets have been incorporated; including thin sections, scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations, Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (QEMSCAN), x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP), profile permeability and permeability regains. In addition to confirming the heterogeneous nature of the porosity and permeability trends within the Cardium tight oil reservoirs, the data shows that the Cardium in the Pembina area is comprised of two distinct regions, East and West Pembina, which are characterized by different diagenetic characteristics and thereby, pore geometries. Diagenetic features in the West include increased mechanical compaction due to burial and an abundance of diagenetic cements including ferroan calcite. Within the East Pembina area, a significant increase in open intergranular porosity is likely not just a function of the 300 to 400 metre shallower burial, but may be a result of earlier oil charging in this up dip area. However, an increased variety and abundance of clays is also present in the East Pembina area when compared to West Pembina and have implications on the reservoir, for example, fluid sensitivity issues. This study highlights the necessity of additional data collection and integration beyond well logs and the observation of core in such muddy bioturbated tight reservoirs. Results and methodology from this study can be applied to the Cardium tight oil play or to other similar tight siliciclastic reservoirs. The Cardium tight oil play in the Pembina region is a highly heterogeneous reservoir dominated by intensely bioturbated muddy sandstones, with the majority of the effective porosity occuring in sand filled burrows that are encased in low permeability muddy sediments. Due to the heterogeneous nature of the porosity distribution within the Cardium Formation in the Pembina Field, routine core analysis methods and observations often fail to provide data that is characteristic of this reservoir. In order to assess reservoir properties with more accuracy and identify preferential analytical techniques that are best suited for interpretations of such bioturbated muddy sandstone reservoirs, a broad range of additional data sets have been incorporated; including thin sections, scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations, Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (QEMSCAN), x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP), profile permeability and permeability regains. In addition to confirming the heterogeneous nature of the porosity and permeability trends within the Cardium tight oil reservoirs, the data shows that the Cardium in the Pembina area is comprised of two distinct regions, East and West Pembina, which are characterized by different diagenetic characteristics and thereby, pore geometries. Diagenetic features in the West include increased mechanical compaction due to burial and an abundance of diagenetic cements including ferroan calcite. Within the East Pembina area, a significant increase in open intergranular porosity is likely not just a function of the 300 to 400 metre shallower burial, but may be a result of earlier oil charging in this up dip area. However, an increased variety and abundance of clays is also present in the East Pembina area when compared to West Pembina and have implications on the reservoir, for example, fluid sensitivity issues. This study highlights the necessity of additional data collection and integration beyond well logs and the observation of core in such muddy bioturbated tight reservoirs. Results and methodology from this study can be applied to the Cardium tight oil play or to other similar tight siliciclastic reservoirs. Panel_15253 Panel_15253 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Turbidites are prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs, yet numerous studies document that reservoir quality (porosity and permeability) prediction is a difficult challenge. In this study, we examine core from the Aspen Field, northern Gulf of Mexico to test how sedimentation processes by turbidity currents impacts reservoir quality in turbidite reservoirs. Strata in Aspen Field consist of a series of interbedded, Upper Miocene sandstone and mudstone intervals that are interpreted to reflect deposition in a distributive channel-lobe system. Five facies are identified, which differ by interpreted sediment-transport mechanism and interpreted flow type. The vertical succession of facies in core is interpreted to record the compensational stacking of 5 lobe elements, resulting in the vertical juxtaposition of the axes, off-axes, and margins of the lobes. X-ray diffraction analysis documents axis-to-margin variations in the composition of turbidite lobes, particularly with regard to the amount of volcanic glass and its diagenetic byproduct, clinoptilolite, resulting in abrupt vertical variations in porosity and permeability. Clinoptilolite, which results from the devitrification of volcanic glass, is enriched in finer-grained, argillaceous facies, resulting in increased cementation and reduced porosity and permeability. The argillaceous facies are interpreted to be from the lateral and distal margins of turbidite lobes. We propose that because volcanic glass is highly angular and has a relatively low density relative to the other mineral grains in the Aspen Field, turbidity currents preferentially fractionate the glass grains to the lateral and distal margins of lobes, where they alter to clinoptilolite during diagenesis. Understanding how fractionation of mineral grains relates to spatial changes in porosity and permeability has implications for predicting vertical changes in reservoir quality in a variety of turbidite-hosted reservoirs. Results of this study can be used to infer similar patterns in other turbidite systems that contain a diverse mineral assemblage with variable settling velocities. Turbidites are prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs, yet numerous studies document that reservoir quality (porosity and permeability) prediction is a difficult challenge. In this study, we examine core from the Aspen Field, northern Gulf of Mexico to test how sedimentation processes by turbidity currents impacts reservoir quality in turbidite reservoirs. Strata in Aspen Field consist of a series of interbedded, Upper Miocene sandstone and mudstone intervals that are interpreted to reflect deposition in a distributive channel-lobe system. Five facies are identified, which differ by interpreted sediment-transport mechanism and interpreted flow type. The vertical succession of facies in core is interpreted to record the compensational stacking of 5 lobe elements, resulting in the vertical juxtaposition of the axes, off-axes, and margins of the lobes. X-ray diffraction analysis documents axis-to-margin variations in the composition of turbidite lobes, particularly with regard to the amount of volcanic glass and its diagenetic byproduct, clinoptilolite, resulting in abrupt vertical variations in porosity and permeability. Clinoptilolite, which results from the devitrification of volcanic glass, is enriched in finer-grained, argillaceous facies, resulting in increased cementation and reduced porosity and permeability. The argillaceous facies are interpreted to be from the lateral and distal margins of turbidite lobes. We propose that because volcanic glass is highly angular and has a relatively low density relative to the other mineral grains in the Aspen Field, turbidity currents preferentially fractionate the glass grains to the lateral and distal margins of lobes, where they alter to clinoptilolite during diagenesis. Understanding how fractionation of mineral grains relates to spatial changes in porosity and permeability has implications for predicting vertical changes in reservoir quality in a variety of turbidite-hosted reservoirs. Results of this study can be used to infer similar patterns in other turbidite systems that contain a diverse mineral assemblage with variable settling velocities. Panel_15256 Panel_15256 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Colony Wash is a significant Desmoinesian age “granite wash” field in western Oklahoma, Anadarko Basin. Understanding the impact of diagenesis on the formations reservoir quality is a key component of success in the play. The Colony Wash sandstones and shales display a near-classic stratigraphic submarine fan sequences and related stacked turbidite with distal fan lobe facies. Vertically, the rocks show variable lithofacies and reservoir qualities. Using 5 cored intervals, we evaluated the diagenetic history and reservoir quality. From each of the key wells, samples representing proximal channel/levee deposits and distal cyclic turbidites were studied through XRD, XRF, core plug porosity and permeability measurements, thin-section quantitative point-count-analysis, and FE-SEM. The maximum paleotemperature was determined through clay authigenesis and pyrolysis measurements on associated organic-rich shales supporting our proposed paragenesis schema. Five depositional facies are present: fine sandy debris flow, coarse sandy debris flow, medium graded turbidite bed, channel levee and debris flow slumps. The best reservoirs are associated with sandy debris flows – generally, all are classified as litharenite sandstones. All facies have been altered by early-stage Fe-chlorite and late-stage Fe-dolomite; additional secondary pore-filling minerals include quartz cement, illite, pyrite, and Ti oxides. In addition to minor intergranular porosity, samples display micro-porosity within the chlorite aggregates, rock fragments, and detrital clay. Chlorite grain coating and continuity controls the extent of quartz overgrowths, and thus in those samples where grain-coating chlorite is less abundant, quartz overgrowths are more common. Chlorite formation is linked to the presence of volcanic rock fragments and ferromagnesium minerals. Carbonate cements are influenced by the presence of detrital calcite and dolomite fragments, availability of the Fe in the system, temperature, the concentration of bicarbonate and pH. Because Fe-dolomite is principally responsible for degrading reservoir quality, forward modeling of Fe-dolomite cement is an important variable when evaluating prospects within the Colony Wash. Colony Wash is a significant Desmoinesian age “granite wash” field in western Oklahoma, Anadarko Basin. Understanding the impact of diagenesis on the formations reservoir quality is a key component of success in the play. The Colony Wash sandstones and shales display a near-classic stratigraphic submarine fan sequences and related stacked turbidite with distal fan lobe facies. Vertically, the rocks show variable lithofacies and reservoir qualities. Using 5 cored intervals, we evaluated the diagenetic history and reservoir quality. From each of the key wells, samples representing proximal channel/levee deposits and distal cyclic turbidites were studied through XRD, XRF, core plug porosity and permeability measurements, thin-section quantitative point-count-analysis, and FE-SEM. The maximum paleotemperature was determined through clay authigenesis and pyrolysis measurements on associated organic-rich shales supporting our proposed paragenesis schema. Five depositional facies are present: fine sandy debris flow, coarse sandy debris flow, medium graded turbidite bed, channel levee and debris flow slumps. The best reservoirs are associated with sandy debris flows – generally, all are classified as litharenite sandstones. All facies have been altered by early-stage Fe-chlorite and late-stage Fe-dolomite; additional secondary pore-filling minerals include quartz cement, illite, pyrite, and Ti oxides. In addition to minor intergranular porosity, samples display micro-porosity within the chlorite aggregates, rock fragments, and detrital clay. Chlorite grain coating and continuity controls the extent of quartz overgrowths, and thus in those samples where grain-coating chlorite is less abundant, quartz overgrowths are more common. Chlorite formation is linked to the presence of volcanic rock fragments and ferromagnesium minerals. Carbonate cements are influenced by the presence of detrital calcite and dolomite fragments, availability of the Fe in the system, temperature, the concentration of bicarbonate and pH. Because Fe-dolomite is principally responsible for degrading reservoir quality, forward modeling of Fe-dolomite cement is an important variable when evaluating prospects within the Colony Wash. Panel_15250 Panel_15250 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The collective suite of cementing minerals in a sandstone develops over the course of a sedimentary sequence's diagenetic history. Growth and dissolution patterns, combined with chemical and isotopic zoning within a single mineral overgrowth, can record chemical and morphological evidence of the initial burial conditions as well as a host of chemical and mechanical burial processes, including compaction, mineral alteration, hydrocarbon generation, and pulses of fluid flow—meteoric or otherwise. Previous studies attempting to isolate diagenetic information from carbonate cements have been limited by an inability to resolve the µm-scale isotopic heterogeneity that is commonly present. Recent advances in the analysis of carbonate minerals by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) allow in-situ measurements of d18O and d13C from areas ?10 µm in diameter. Precision of ±0.3‰ (2SD) is attainable for d18O with a 10 µm spot; for d13C precision of ±0.7‰ (2SD) is attainable with a 5 µm spot. We used SIMS analysis of d18O in carbonate and silicate cements to test a model wherein slow deposition and burial in the Illinois Basin is recorded in the diagenetic minerals of the middle-Ordovician St. Peter and Cambrian Mt. Simon sandstones (Hyodo et al., 2014 Chem Geol). d18O and d13C-zoned dolomite-ankerite cements in these formations preserve systematic variations consistent with chemical and thermal processes operating on a basin-wide scale.d18O in early dolomites range from 23-27‰ VSMOW (-7 to -3‰ VPDB), but later zones show sequentially lower values associated with burial and heating, as was previously observed for d18O values in zoned quartz overgrowths (Pollington et al., 2011 Geology). This long period with low fluid fluxes due to burial and compaction was punctuated by a brief period of metal-carrying brine migration, driven through the sandstone aquifers by uplift in the Ouachitas and associated with the Mississippi-Valley Type (MVT) ore deposits (ca. 270 Ma) of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Some late ankerites have d18O values of 18‰ VSMOW (-12‰ VPDB) or lower, suggesting that temperatures were elevated above the geotherm by hot brines and/or d18O of porewater was lowered. Either way, fluid flow is indicated and we conclude that some of these late periods of diagenetic growth are likely associated with MVT fluids. Values of d13C in zoned dolomite-ankerites range from 0 to -7‰ VPDB and frequently vary independently of d18O, also suggesting open-system behavior. The collective suite of cementing minerals in a sandstone develops over the course of a sedimentary sequence's diagenetic history. Growth and dissolution patterns, combined with chemical and isotopic zoning within a single mineral overgrowth, can record chemical and morphological evidence of the initial burial conditions as well as a host of chemical and mechanical burial processes, including compaction, mineral alteration, hydrocarbon generation, and pulses of fluid flow—meteoric or otherwise. Previous studies attempting to isolate diagenetic information from carbonate cements have been limited by an inability to resolve the µm-scale isotopic heterogeneity that is commonly present. Recent advances in the analysis of carbonate minerals by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) allow in-situ measurements of d18O and d13C from areas ?10 µm in diameter. Precision of ±0.3‰ (2SD) is attainable for d18O with a 10 µm spot; for d13C precision of ±0.7‰ (2SD) is attainable with a 5 µm spot. We used SIMS analysis of d18O in carbonate and silicate cements to test a model wherein slow deposition and burial in the Illinois Basin is recorded in the diagenetic minerals of the middle-Ordovician St. Peter and Cambrian Mt. Simon sandstones (Hyodo et al., 2014 Chem Geol). d18O and d13C-zoned dolomite-ankerite cements in these formations preserve systematic variations consistent with chemical and thermal processes operating on a basin-wide scale.d18O in early dolomites range from 23-27‰ VSMOW (-7 to -3‰ VPDB), but later zones show sequentially lower values associated with burial and heating, as was previously observed for d18O values in zoned quartz overgrowths (Pollington et al., 2011 Geology). This long period with low fluid fluxes due to burial and compaction was punctuated by a brief period of metal-carrying brine migration, driven through the sandstone aquifers by uplift in the Ouachitas and associated with the Mississippi-Valley Type (MVT) ore deposits (ca. 270 Ma) of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Some late ankerites have d18O values of 18‰ VSMOW (-12‰ VPDB) or lower, suggesting that temperatures were elevated above the geotherm by hot brines and/or d18O of porewater was lowered. Either way, fluid flow is indicated and we conclude that some of these late periods of diagenetic growth are likely associated with MVT fluids. Values of d13C in zoned dolomite-ankerites range from 0 to -7‰ VPDB and frequently vary independently of d18O, also suggesting open-system behavior. Panel_15252 Panel_15252 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14468 Panel_14468 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Counter point bar, or concave-bank bench, deposits have historically been overlooked relative to other meanderbelt elements. Although they have been sporadically described from modern river systems, until recently their stratigraphic expression has not been explored. Recent identification in subsurface datasets has relied on recognition of their characteristic concave-downstream accretion surfaces in seismic reflection volumes, calibrated by well data. However, they have largely been elusive in the outcrop record. In this study, a meanderbelt deposit is examined in badlands-style outcrops of the Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Fm in SE Alberta, Canada. The dissected landscape offers sedimentological details of the 7.5-8.0 m thick meanderbelt deposit over 3 km2. In the outcrop, counter point bar deposits consist of siltstone-dominated inclined heterolithic stratification, which are present immediately downstream from and adjacent to convex-shaped, sandstone-dominated point bar elements. The evolution of fluvial meanderbelts results in a complex amalgam of architectural elements in the stratigraphic record (e.g., point bars, etc.), which when unraveled, provide insight into formative sedimentological processes. A predictive linkage between morphodynamics and stratigraphic product is critical for interpretation of the rock record, particularly in instances of limited data such as subsurface reservoirs. Refined fine-scale facies and architectural element transitions deduced from the field study are considered for the analysis of analogous deposits, including those of the Athabasca Oil Sands. At Dinosaur Provincial Park, detailed sedimentologic characteristics were compiled from over 40 measured sections and abundant paleoflow indicators; key stratigraphic surfaces, including meanderbelt bounding contacts, component architectural element contacts, and intra-bar accretion and erosion surfaces, were surveyed using a high resolution (10 cm) differential GPS unit. Outcrop data was then imported into modeling software, and surfaces extrapolated and projected into the third dimension in order to constrain geometrical information (e.g., surface orientations, which reveal bar accretion directions). Architectural element and component geobody volumes are also constrained. The study area is characterized by at least five meanderbelt elements, including point bars and abandoned channel fills – emphasis is placed on characterization of a counter point bar deposit. Counter point bar, or concave-bank bench, deposits have historically been overlooked relative to other meanderbelt elements. Although they have been sporadically described from modern river systems, until recently their stratigraphic expression has not been explored. Recent identification in subsurface datasets has relied on recognition of their characteristic concave-downstream accretion surfaces in seismic reflection volumes, calibrated by well data. However, they have largely been elusive in the outcrop record. In this study, a meanderbelt deposit is examined in badlands-style outcrops of the Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Fm in SE Alberta, Canada. The dissected landscape offers sedimentological details of the 7.5-8.0 m thick meanderbelt deposit over 3 km². In the outcrop, counter point bar deposits consist of siltstone-dominated inclined heterolithic stratification, which are present immediately downstream from and adjacent to convex-shaped, sandstone-dominated point bar elements. The evolution of fluvial meanderbelts results in a complex amalgam of architectural elements in the stratigraphic record (e.g., point bars, etc.), which when unraveled, provide insight into formative sedimentological processes. A predictive linkage between morphodynamics and stratigraphic product is critical for interpretation of the rock record, particularly in instances of limited data such as subsurface reservoirs. Refined fine-scale facies and architectural element transitions deduced from the field study are considered for the analysis of analogous deposits, including those of the Athabasca Oil Sands. At Dinosaur Provincial Park, detailed sedimentologic characteristics were compiled from over 40 measured sections and abundant paleoflow indicators; key stratigraphic surfaces, including meanderbelt bounding contacts, component architectural element contacts, and intra-bar accretion and erosion surfaces, were surveyed using a high resolution (10 cm) differential GPS unit. Outcrop data was then imported into modeling software, and surfaces extrapolated and projected into the third dimension in order to constrain geometrical information (e.g., surface orientations, which reveal bar accretion directions). Architectural element and component geobody volumes are also constrained. The study area is characterized by at least five meanderbelt elements, including point bars and abandoned channel fills – emphasis is placed on characterization of a counter point bar deposit. Panel_15317 Panel_15317 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Through analysis of bed-set geometries and foreset dip-azimuth relationships in a series of ancient outcropping eolian successions, a series of empirical relationships have been established that advance our ability to predict 3D eolian architecture from trends in 1D subsurface core data. The method allows for the first-order reconstruction of the likely the geometry and connectivity of effective net reservoir units, and preferred directional permeability trends. Comparison of subsurface stratal relationships observable in core to known architectures stored in a database of eolian outcrop analogs enables informed calculations of expected net reservoir volumes in subsurface reservoir intervals. Interpretations of expected original bedform morphology and style of migratory behavior are based on analysis of the distribution and order of occurrence of preserved eolian facies units and associated foreset dip-azimuth trends in core. A suite of sedimentological models are introduced to demonstrate the application of the technique for the identification of a variety of eolian bedform types. The preserved record of superimposed dunes on draa-scale parent bedforms is signified by compound cosets of strata within which a hierarchy of bounding surface types are present. Where superimposed dunes possessed active slipfaces, they tend to preserve thick, stacked sets of grainflow-dominated strata with favorable reservoir properties. By contrast, where draa-scale bedforms lacked superimposed dunes, they tend to preserve thick sets of wind-ripple-dominated strata that represent low-angle-inclined plinths of relatively poor reservoir quality. Most previous studies of directional permeability in eolian reservoirs predict increased fluid flow in orientations up-dip within sets along the length of relatively more permeable grainflow units. Although this is tends to be the case at the scale of individual bed-sets, at the larger architectural-element scale, the direction of maximum permeability is determined by the orientation of elongation of dune elements that typically comprise lozenge-shaped packages of grainflow strata encased within lower permeability packages of wind-ripple strata at the margins of the elements. Original bedform morphology, style of migration and rate of accumulation each play an important role in determining both directional permeability and connectivity and must be accounted for in eolian reservoir modeling workflows. Through analysis of bed-set geometries and foreset dip-azimuth relationships in a series of ancient outcropping eolian successions, a series of empirical relationships have been established that advance our ability to predict 3D eolian architecture from trends in 1D subsurface core data. The method allows for the first-order reconstruction of the likely the geometry and connectivity of effective net reservoir units, and preferred directional permeability trends. Comparison of subsurface stratal relationships observable in core to known architectures stored in a database of eolian outcrop analogs enables informed calculations of expected net reservoir volumes in subsurface reservoir intervals. Interpretations of expected original bedform morphology and style of migratory behavior are based on analysis of the distribution and order of occurrence of preserved eolian facies units and associated foreset dip-azimuth trends in core. A suite of sedimentological models are introduced to demonstrate the application of the technique for the identification of a variety of eolian bedform types. The preserved record of superimposed dunes on draa-scale parent bedforms is signified by compound cosets of strata within which a hierarchy of bounding surface types are present. Where superimposed dunes possessed active slipfaces, they tend to preserve thick, stacked sets of grainflow-dominated strata with favorable reservoir properties. By contrast, where draa-scale bedforms lacked superimposed dunes, they tend to preserve thick sets of wind-ripple-dominated strata that represent low-angle-inclined plinths of relatively poor reservoir quality. Most previous studies of directional permeability in eolian reservoirs predict increased fluid flow in orientations up-dip within sets along the length of relatively more permeable grainflow units. Although this is tends to be the case at the scale of individual bed-sets, at the larger architectural-element scale, the direction of maximum permeability is determined by the orientation of elongation of dune elements that typically comprise lozenge-shaped packages of grainflow strata encased within lower permeability packages of wind-ripple strata at the margins of the elements. Original bedform morphology, style of migration and rate of accumulation each play an important role in determining both directional permeability and connectivity and must be accounted for in eolian reservoir modeling workflows. Panel_15322 Panel_15322 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Numerous studies relate foreland-basin infill to allogenic forcing, but to date only a few have been able to clearly disentangle the relative roles of tectonics and climate on long-term deposition. Here we present preliminary observations on the continental sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Central Argentinian Foreland. The basin infill records local environmental changes from the late Oligocene to the Quaternary, during active Andean orogeny. The Mariño Formation comprises a large part of the basin infill, dating from ~15.7 to 12.0 Ma and extending over almost 1100 m in stratigraphy. The basal part is characterized by the intercalation of aeolian and fluvial deposits, followed vertically by the stacking of fluvial deposits with highly differentiated facies associations and architectures. This stratigraphic picture developed during the uplift of the Principal Cordillera suggests the interaction of different allogenic controls in the region. This project aims to provide a detailed reconstruction of paleoenvironmental dynamics and to unravel the relative roles of climate and tectonics through a high-resolution, integrated compositional and sedimentological analysis of the Mariño Formation. The main objectives are: to detect geochemical signatures of allogenic controls; to track changes in sediment provenance and relative information on magmatism and exhumation in the uplifting Andes; and to recognize the effects of different allogenic drives on sedimentary processes and local environmental changes. Our approach consists of high-resolution mineralogical and petrographical study using both conventional approach and automated QEMSCAN technology, heavy-minerals analysis, geochemistry, radiogenic isotope analysis, U-Pb and fission-track dating of detrital zircons. The exceptional lateral exposure and the possibility to develop stratigraphic correlations calibrated with quantitative analytical approaches will constrain the relative role of different allogenic processes and offer insights for understanding similar sedimentary complexes in the subsurface. Exploration and extraction of energy resources is increasingly reliant in the detailed characterization of sedimentary reservoirs. Besides providing an extensive outcrop analogue for the characterization and prediction of subsurface reservoirs, this project represents an important, ground-based test of mineralogical and geochemical methods for reservoir correlation and evaluation. Numerous studies relate foreland-basin infill to allogenic forcing, but to date only a few have been able to clearly disentangle the relative roles of tectonics and climate on long-term deposition. Here we present preliminary observations on the continental sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Central Argentinian Foreland. The basin infill records local environmental changes from the late Oligocene to the Quaternary, during active Andean orogeny. The Mariño Formation comprises a large part of the basin infill, dating from ~15.7 to 12.0 Ma and extending over almost 1100 m in stratigraphy. The basal part is characterized by the intercalation of aeolian and fluvial deposits, followed vertically by the stacking of fluvial deposits with highly differentiated facies associations and architectures. This stratigraphic picture developed during the uplift of the Principal Cordillera suggests the interaction of different allogenic controls in the region. This project aims to provide a detailed reconstruction of paleoenvironmental dynamics and to unravel the relative roles of climate and tectonics through a high-resolution, integrated compositional and sedimentological analysis of the Mariño Formation. The main objectives are: to detect geochemical signatures of allogenic controls; to track changes in sediment provenance and relative information on magmatism and exhumation in the uplifting Andes; and to recognize the effects of different allogenic drives on sedimentary processes and local environmental changes. Our approach consists of high-resolution mineralogical and petrographical study using both conventional approach and automated QEMSCAN technology, heavy-minerals analysis, geochemistry, radiogenic isotope analysis, U-Pb and fission-track dating of detrital zircons. The exceptional lateral exposure and the possibility to develop stratigraphic correlations calibrated with quantitative analytical approaches will constrain the relative role of different allogenic processes and offer insights for understanding similar sedimentary complexes in the subsurface. Exploration and extraction of energy resources is increasingly reliant in the detailed characterization of sedimentary reservoirs. Besides providing an extensive outcrop analogue for the characterization and prediction of subsurface reservoirs, this project represents an important, ground-based test of mineralogical and geochemical methods for reservoir correlation and evaluation. Panel_15309 Panel_15309 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Transgressive fluvial strata are deposited during an overall landward migration of the shoreline. Few studies have focused on transgressive fluvial strata, especially those deposited in high-accommodation settings. The Escanilla Formation of the Ainsa Basin contains world-class outcrops of fluvial strata deposited during transgression in a high-accommodation setting. This study uses outcrop data to document system scale vertical and lateral variations in stratigraphic architecture, net-sand content, and static connectivity in this setting. Data from stratigraphic columns, interpreted photopanels, and geologic maps of depositional facies and sand body locations are used to document temporally and spatially varying characteristics including, lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures, lithofacies, architectural elements, net-sand content, stratal boundaries, and static connectivity of channel bodies. These data are used to construct longitudinal and lateral cross sections that document the location of the paleoshoreline, distribution of floodplain and channel deposits, and changes in net-sand content and static connectivity. Key axis-to-margin patterns in the fluvial system are an increase in the proportion of channel-fill and splay stories, and channel-belt elements at the expense of floodplain fine stories, and an increase in net-sand content, channel-belt element size, modal grain size, and static connectivity from the margin to the axis of the system. The axis of the system contains the best reservoir quality strata and potential for static connectivity. Key vertical changes in the fluvial system are an upward increase in channel-belt element size, net-sand content, modal grainsize within channel-belt elements, and static connectivity. Data provided herein provide insight into high accommodation, transgressive fluvial deposits and can be used to reduce uncertainty in the interpretation of subsurface data, provide input to constrain rules-based forward stratigraphic models, and provide input to constrain reservoir models in transgressive fluvial systems. Transgressive fluvial strata are deposited during an overall landward migration of the shoreline. Few studies have focused on transgressive fluvial strata, especially those deposited in high-accommodation settings. The Escanilla Formation of the Ainsa Basin contains world-class outcrops of fluvial strata deposited during transgression in a high-accommodation setting. This study uses outcrop data to document system scale vertical and lateral variations in stratigraphic architecture, net-sand content, and static connectivity in this setting. Data from stratigraphic columns, interpreted photopanels, and geologic maps of depositional facies and sand body locations are used to document temporally and spatially varying characteristics including, lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures, lithofacies, architectural elements, net-sand content, stratal boundaries, and static connectivity of channel bodies. These data are used to construct longitudinal and lateral cross sections that document the location of the paleoshoreline, distribution of floodplain and channel deposits, and changes in net-sand content and static connectivity. Key axis-to-margin patterns in the fluvial system are an increase in the proportion of channel-fill and splay stories, and channel-belt elements at the expense of floodplain fine stories, and an increase in net-sand content, channel-belt element size, modal grain size, and static connectivity from the margin to the axis of the system. The axis of the system contains the best reservoir quality strata and potential for static connectivity. Key vertical changes in the fluvial system are an upward increase in channel-belt element size, net-sand content, modal grainsize within channel-belt elements, and static connectivity. Data provided herein provide insight into high accommodation, transgressive fluvial deposits and can be used to reduce uncertainty in the interpretation of subsurface data, provide input to constrain rules-based forward stratigraphic models, and provide input to constrain reservoir models in transgressive fluvial systems. Panel_15324 Panel_15324 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

On-going exploration of conventional hydrocarbon plays is increasingly focused towards the development of geologically complex reservoirs for which stratigraphic heterogeneity is difficult to predict. Many such current reservoirs, and an increasing proportion of likely future ones, are characterized by sedimentary bodies that accumulated as mixed eolian-fluvial systems that competed and interacted synchronously. Well-known reservoir examples include the Permian Unayzah Formation of Saudi Arabia, the Permian Rotliegend Group of the North Sea, the Triassic Ormskirk Sandstone of the East Irish Sea, the Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone of the Gulf of Mexico, and the Cretaceous Agrio Formation, Argentina. These mixed depositional systems typically exhibit highly variable lateral and vertical facies configurations that preserve complex juxtapositions of architectural elements composed of stratal units with markedly variable reservoir properties. Such stratigraphic partitioning is intrinsically difficult to predict from limited subsurface data. As such, there exists a requirement for more sophisticated geological models to better account for reservoir architecture and connectivity. This work uses outcropping case-study examples of eolian-fluvial interactions from the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group of the UK and the Permo-Pennsylvanian Cutler Group of southeast Utah, USA, to develop a suite of predictive models that depict common styles of stratigraphic complexity within eolian-fluvial systems. Studied successions accumulated in response to a variety of system interactions, deposits of which are preserved at a range of spatial scales from 100-104 m: (i) short-lived and localized fluvial reworking of eolian dune deposits in response to flash flood events; (ii) eolian reworking of fluvial deposits via winnowing; (iii) the fluvial exploitation and possible damming of open interdune corridors; (iv) the flooding of isolated (spatially enclosed) interdune hollows in response to an elevated water table. Identified types of interactions are characterized within a spatial scheme whereby occurrences can be used as a predictor of relative position within the larger-scale zone of transition between coeval eolian dune-field and fluvial systems. Application of this spatial scheme allows for prediction of the type of eolian-fluvial interactions expected for a range of paleogeographic settings, thereby serving as a tool for ranking exploration targets within larger prospect areas. On-going exploration of conventional hydrocarbon plays is increasingly focused towards the development of geologically complex reservoirs for which stratigraphic heterogeneity is difficult to predict. Many such current reservoirs, and an increasing proportion of likely future ones, are characterized by sedimentary bodies that accumulated as mixed eolian-fluvial systems that competed and interacted synchronously. Well-known reservoir examples include the Permian Unayzah Formation of Saudi Arabia, the Permian Rotliegend Group of the North Sea, the Triassic Ormskirk Sandstone of the East Irish Sea, the Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone of the Gulf of Mexico, and the Cretaceous Agrio Formation, Argentina. These mixed depositional systems typically exhibit highly variable lateral and vertical facies configurations that preserve complex juxtapositions of architectural elements composed of stratal units with markedly variable reservoir properties. Such stratigraphic partitioning is intrinsically difficult to predict from limited subsurface data. As such, there exists a requirement for more sophisticated geological models to better account for reservoir architecture and connectivity. This work uses outcropping case-study examples of eolian-fluvial interactions from the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group of the UK and the Permo-Pennsylvanian Cutler Group of southeast Utah, USA, to develop a suite of predictive models that depict common styles of stratigraphic complexity within eolian-fluvial systems. Studied successions accumulated in response to a variety of system interactions, deposits of which are preserved at a range of spatial scales from 100-104 m: (i) short-lived and localized fluvial reworking of eolian dune deposits in response to flash flood events; (ii) eolian reworking of fluvial deposits via winnowing; (iii) the fluvial exploitation and possible damming of open interdune corridors; (iv) the flooding of isolated (spatially enclosed) interdune hollows in response to an elevated water table. Identified types of interactions are characterized within a spatial scheme whereby occurrences can be used as a predictor of relative position within the larger-scale zone of transition between coeval eolian dune-field and fluvial systems. Application of this spatial scheme allows for prediction of the type of eolian-fluvial interactions expected for a range of paleogeographic settings, thereby serving as a tool for ranking exploration targets within larger prospect areas. Panel_15323 Panel_15323 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Early observations from mapping and dating of fluvial terraces within the Missouri River Valley illustrate a valley architecture similar to common fluvial sequence stratigraphic models. However, opticially stimulated luminescence (OSL) and 14C dating of these surfaces indicate this architecture was created by multiple upstream controlled cut and fill events with preferential preservation of lower channels. The classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model consists of external forcing causing valley incision and sediment bypass when down-stream anchors are low, followed by channel amalgamation as valleys begin filling, and ending with dispersed floodplain dominated channel sequences when accommodation is high. Mapping of fluvial channels throughout the Missouri River Valley presents a similar architecture which appears to fit the classic down-stream anchor controlled sequence stratigraphic model, but is instead created by preferential preservation of lower channels deposited at the end of incisional events. OSL dating techniques applied to terraces within the valley has presented two major incisional and aggradational cycles since the Last Glacial Maximum. The oldest incisional surface was dated between 16-14 ka BP, around the time of breakdown of the last glacial advance. Around 13-12 ka BP, a meandering channel belt aggraded close to the modern level of the Missouri River, and was followed by incision around 11-10 ka BP. Finally, around 8 ka BP, the Missouri River aggraded to modern levels where it has remained throughout the Holocene. These events were most likely caused by glacially driven upstream controls, and not by down-stream anchor controls. Instead, lower channels are preferentially preserved due to lack of erosion during incision while upper channels are eroded and therefore misrepresented in the record. This work shows that the classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model, which is commonly interpreted in the rock record, can be produced by multiple upstream-controlled incision/aggradation cycles with preferential preservation of lower channels and does not necessarily have to be a one cycle down-stream anchor controlled sequence. This may be of economic importance in reservoir modeling because applying a classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model to such a valley will underestimate the heterogeneity of the amalgamated channels at the base of the valley since these have been created by multiple scouring events as opposed to just one sequence. Early observations from mapping and dating of fluvial terraces within the Missouri River Valley illustrate a valley architecture similar to common fluvial sequence stratigraphic models. However, opticially stimulated luminescence (OSL) and 14C dating of these surfaces indicate this architecture was created by multiple upstream controlled cut and fill events with preferential preservation of lower channels. The classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model consists of external forcing causing valley incision and sediment bypass when down-stream anchors are low, followed by channel amalgamation as valleys begin filling, and ending with dispersed floodplain dominated channel sequences when accommodation is high. Mapping of fluvial channels throughout the Missouri River Valley presents a similar architecture which appears to fit the classic down-stream anchor controlled sequence stratigraphic model, but is instead created by preferential preservation of lower channels deposited at the end of incisional events. OSL dating techniques applied to terraces within the valley has presented two major incisional and aggradational cycles since the Last Glacial Maximum. The oldest incisional surface was dated between 16-14 ka BP, around the time of breakdown of the last glacial advance. Around 13-12 ka BP, a meandering channel belt aggraded close to the modern level of the Missouri River, and was followed by incision around 11-10 ka BP. Finally, around 8 ka BP, the Missouri River aggraded to modern levels where it has remained throughout the Holocene. These events were most likely caused by glacially driven upstream controls, and not by down-stream anchor controls. Instead, lower channels are preferentially preserved due to lack of erosion during incision while upper channels are eroded and therefore misrepresented in the record. This work shows that the classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model, which is commonly interpreted in the rock record, can be produced by multiple upstream-controlled incision/aggradation cycles with preferential preservation of lower channels and does not necessarily have to be a one cycle down-stream anchor controlled sequence. This may be of economic importance in reservoir modeling because applying a classic fluvial sequence stratigraphic model to such a valley will underestimate the heterogeneity of the amalgamated channels at the base of the valley since these have been created by multiple scouring events as opposed to just one sequence. Panel_15313 Panel_15313 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fluvial drainage networks are common at the margins of desert basins. Some penetrate 101-102 km into the inner parts of eolian dune fields; others are dammed and ponded at outer margins. Some systems occupy long-lived fluvial corridors that partition dune fields; others occupy transient interdune corridors that open and close as desert dunes migrate. Thus, a range of styles of fluvial-eolian interaction arise. Results from two case studies are presented here: the presently active Skeleton Coast Erg, Namibia and the Triassic Helsby Sandstone Formation, UK. This study documents the effects of temporal and spatial variability on preserved stratigraphic architecture of mixed fluvial-eolian systems arising from: (i) changes in the dune and interdune morphology; (ii) variability in sediment transport processes across desert basins for both settings; (iii) variability in the preservation mechanism for sediments of mixed systems. Fluvial incursions into desert basins are controlled by precipitation-event frequency and magnitude, fluvial runoff distance from catchment to receiving basin, sediment yield, changes to regional water-table level in response to flood events, paleotopography of the accumulation surface, and long-term climate change. These factors conspire to determine fluvial discharge to the receiving basin in the form of confined floods within channelized networks or as widespread unconfined sheet flows in dune-field margins. Presently active system interactions include: (i) the establishment of long-lived major through-going open interdune corridors along which well-established rivers pass; (ii) the damming of river courses by active eolian dunes that form barriers to flow, thereby resulting in the ponding of flood waters and the development of large, slowly draining flood basins; (iii) the passage of flood waters as sheet flows into the outer margins of eolian dune fields. The preserved stratigraphic expression of ancient fluvial-eolian interactions include: (i) relationships indicative of systematic temporal change from an eolian dune field characterized by small, isolated dry interdunes to one in which interdunes were large and interconnected such that they acted as conduits for fluvial flow whereby fluvial channels were able to penetrate into dune-field center settings; (ii) evidence for fluvial reworking of eolian dune deposits by erosive flows that resulted in temporary cessation in dune migration in the immediate aftermath of flood events. Fluvial drainage networks are common at the margins of desert basins. Some penetrate 101-102 km into the inner parts of eolian dune fields; others are dammed and ponded at outer margins. Some systems occupy long-lived fluvial corridors that partition dune fields; others occupy transient interdune corridors that open and close as desert dunes migrate. Thus, a range of styles of fluvial-eolian interaction arise. Results from two case studies are presented here: the presently active Skeleton Coast Erg, Namibia and the Triassic Helsby Sandstone Formation, UK. This study documents the effects of temporal and spatial variability on preserved stratigraphic architecture of mixed fluvial-eolian systems arising from: (i) changes in the dune and interdune morphology; (ii) variability in sediment transport processes across desert basins for both settings; (iii) variability in the preservation mechanism for sediments of mixed systems. Fluvial incursions into desert basins are controlled by precipitation-event frequency and magnitude, fluvial runoff distance from catchment to receiving basin, sediment yield, changes to regional water-table level in response to flood events, paleotopography of the accumulation surface, and long-term climate change. These factors conspire to determine fluvial discharge to the receiving basin in the form of confined floods within channelized networks or as widespread unconfined sheet flows in dune-field margins. Presently active system interactions include: (i) the establishment of long-lived major through-going open interdune corridors along which well-established rivers pass; (ii) the damming of river courses by active eolian dunes that form barriers to flow, thereby resulting in the ponding of flood waters and the development of large, slowly draining flood basins; (iii) the passage of flood waters as sheet flows into the outer margins of eolian dune fields. The preserved stratigraphic expression of ancient fluvial-eolian interactions include: (i) relationships indicative of systematic temporal change from an eolian dune field characterized by small, isolated dry interdunes to one in which interdunes were large and interconnected such that they acted as conduits for fluvial flow whereby fluvial channels were able to penetrate into dune-field center settings; (ii) evidence for fluvial reworking of eolian dune deposits by erosive flows that resulted in temporary cessation in dune migration in the immediate aftermath of flood events. Panel_15320 Panel_15320 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Various large fluvial fan systems have been recognized in the geological record. Yet their sedimentologic and stratigraphic differences are unclear. This study recognizes the Early Eocene Green River Formation in the Uinta Basin and the Cretaceous Williams Fork Formation in the Piceance Basin as fluvial megafans, as seen by their lateral extent, internal architecture, and lateral and vertical facies transitions. Outcrop measured sections and photomosaics with GPS survey were integrated with areal mapping of channel dimensions, channel to floodplain ratio, and sedimentary facies variability. Core and well log were also used to quantity facies proportions and distributions. Sandying upward successions exist in both basins, seen as an increase in channel to floodplain ratio, channel size, and degree of amalgamation. Similar trends are also observed laterally that channel fill facies become more heterolithic away from the proximal fan zone. There are multiple scales of upward sandying packages, the largest being the whole fan system, and the smallest the individual avulsion packages. High avulsion rates and channel return frequency are interpreted to control the high degree of amalgamation on the proximal fans. The amalgamation degree is especially high in the Uinta Basin, where the channel fills indicate dominant upper flow regime and high deposition rates, representing flashy or highly seasonal deposition. The Williams Fork channel fills have a smaller proportion of upper flow regime and especially high deposition rate structures. The seasonality in places is indicated by repeated upward fining flood deposits. The red floodplain mudstones in the Green River Fm signify sustainably dry conditions, whereas the gray floodplain mudstones in the Williams Fork Fm indicate higher annual precipitation. The progradational fan units are interbedded by lake beds in the Uinta Basin and tidal deposits in the Piceance Basin. The Green River Fm shows more frequent vertical and lateral alternations of fluvial deposits with lakebeds than tidal deposits in the Williams Fork Fm. Facies architectural variability in fluvial megafan systems was evaluated and a 3-D stratigraphic model was developed. The results showed that lateral and vertical facies associations vary with channel avulsion style and position within a fan. These systems were proved to be sediment supply driven rather than accommodation driven in both basins, regardless of sea level or lake level control. Various large fluvial fan systems have been recognized in the geological record. Yet their sedimentologic and stratigraphic differences are unclear. This study recognizes the Early Eocene Green River Formation in the Uinta Basin and the Cretaceous Williams Fork Formation in the Piceance Basin as fluvial megafans, as seen by their lateral extent, internal architecture, and lateral and vertical facies transitions. Outcrop measured sections and photomosaics with GPS survey were integrated with areal mapping of channel dimensions, channel to floodplain ratio, and sedimentary facies variability. Core and well log were also used to quantity facies proportions and distributions. Sandying upward successions exist in both basins, seen as an increase in channel to floodplain ratio, channel size, and degree of amalgamation. Similar trends are also observed laterally that channel fill facies become more heterolithic away from the proximal fan zone. There are multiple scales of upward sandying packages, the largest being the whole fan system, and the smallest the individual avulsion packages. High avulsion rates and channel return frequency are interpreted to control the high degree of amalgamation on the proximal fans. The amalgamation degree is especially high in the Uinta Basin, where the channel fills indicate dominant upper flow regime and high deposition rates, representing flashy or highly seasonal deposition. The Williams Fork channel fills have a smaller proportion of upper flow regime and especially high deposition rate structures. The seasonality in places is indicated by repeated upward fining flood deposits. The red floodplain mudstones in the Green River Fm signify sustainably dry conditions, whereas the gray floodplain mudstones in the Williams Fork Fm indicate higher annual precipitation. The progradational fan units are interbedded by lake beds in the Uinta Basin and tidal deposits in the Piceance Basin. The Green River Fm shows more frequent vertical and lateral alternations of fluvial deposits with lakebeds than tidal deposits in the Williams Fork Fm. Facies architectural variability in fluvial megafan systems was evaluated and a 3-D stratigraphic model was developed. The results showed that lateral and vertical facies associations vary with channel avulsion style and position within a fan. These systems were proved to be sediment supply driven rather than accommodation driven in both basins, regardless of sea level or lake level control. Panel_15315 Panel_15315 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Point bars are difficult to model due to complex lateral and vertical heterogeneities at multiple scales. The Multi-Point Statistics (MPS) algorithm can create complex facies geometries while honoring seismic and well conditioning, but MPS requires the user to first provide a Training Image (TI), a three-dimensional conceptual model of the depositional facies that captures the complex lateral and vertical relationships between facies This paper discusses a technique to build a TI for a fluvial point bar that combines a conceptual model of point bars with data from closely spaced wells in a modern analog. This TI was then used in MPS to populate point bar facies in a 3D framework built with layers inclined parallel to bedding. The fluvial point bar TI was constructed in a horizontally-layered “sugar cube” framework where each TI layer represents a single time slice. To populate the TI, we used mathematical functions to describe a fining upward character, an upstream to downstream fining component, and vertical cyclicity with the thickest beds at the base and thinner beds at the top. Cores and LPSA data were used to define majority facies codes at different positions within the system from upstream to downstream, from bar top to bar base. To capture the trends observed in the system, these majority facies codes were used as targets for optimizing a linear equation with cell indices I, J, and K as independent variables. These equations were used to assign facies code trends across all grid cells of the TI. Four vertical fining upward cycles observed in the cores were placed into the TI using look-up functions with cell index K as the independent variable. This piece-wise linear function was developed to describe the locations of discontinuities at the boundaries of each major cycle. A correlated Gaussian noise function was used to add realistic variability to the TI. These trend functions were combined to create the lateral and vertical trends and cycle discontinuities in the TI. A rank transform function was used to impose the correct facies proportions as measured from core and wireline log data. The function-based TI was used in MPS for facies modeling in an inclined 3D layer framework. Bed and lateral accretion package geometries were informed by closely spaced lines of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data. With this TI, MPS captured the trends and cyclicity accurately, although it was computationally expensive. Point bars are difficult to model due to complex lateral and vertical heterogeneities at multiple scales. The Multi-Point Statistics (MPS) algorithm can create complex facies geometries while honoring seismic and well conditioning, but MPS requires the user to first provide a Training Image (TI), a three-dimensional conceptual model of the depositional facies that captures the complex lateral and vertical relationships between facies This paper discusses a technique to build a TI for a fluvial point bar that combines a conceptual model of point bars with data from closely spaced wells in a modern analog. This TI was then used in MPS to populate point bar facies in a 3D framework built with layers inclined parallel to bedding. The fluvial point bar TI was constructed in a horizontally-layered “sugar cube” framework where each TI layer represents a single time slice. To populate the TI, we used mathematical functions to describe a fining upward character, an upstream to downstream fining component, and vertical cyclicity with the thickest beds at the base and thinner beds at the top. Cores and LPSA data were used to define majority facies codes at different positions within the system from upstream to downstream, from bar top to bar base. To capture the trends observed in the system, these majority facies codes were used as targets for optimizing a linear equation with cell indices I, J, and K as independent variables. These equations were used to assign facies code trends across all grid cells of the TI. Four vertical fining upward cycles observed in the cores were placed into the TI using look-up functions with cell index K as the independent variable. This piece-wise linear function was developed to describe the locations of discontinuities at the boundaries of each major cycle. A correlated Gaussian noise function was used to add realistic variability to the TI. These trend functions were combined to create the lateral and vertical trends and cycle discontinuities in the TI. A rank transform function was used to impose the correct facies proportions as measured from core and wireline log data. The function-based TI was used in MPS for facies modeling in an inclined 3D layer framework. Bed and lateral accretion package geometries were informed by closely spaced lines of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data. With this TI, MPS captured the trends and cyclicity accurately, although it was computationally expensive. Panel_15325 Panel_15325 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

We produced a 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) model of strata of a single 9m thick point bar in the Late Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation of the Steveville area of Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. The highly dissected landscape and sparse vegetation in the study area provide optimal conditions to observe bar internal architecture in three dimensions from TLS data, permitting us to complete a 3D architectural-element analysis of a 200m by 150m cube in a single point bar. The goal of this 3D fine scale architectural-element analysis is to add increased understanding of the connectivity within point bars at the scale of a steam chamber through better constraint on the distribution of lithologies and surfaces. Lithologies of this point bar record a fining upward trend from basal lower medium to fine sand, upward into siltstone, mudstone, as well as peaty clay on the bar top. The base is also more homogeneous, consisting mainly of lower medium sand with some silt drapes. Heterolithics increase with the general fining upward trend and include siltstones and mudstones. Mapped accretion surfaces could not be traced either in down dip or strike direction for more than a few meters before being truncated by younger accretion events. Point bar deposits consist of centimeter to meter vertical-scaled and imbricately stacked unit bars. Consecutive unit bars are commonly reshaped by erosion and/or depositionally draped. This highly fragmented accretion style results in a lack of accretion surfaces that span the length or height of the full point bar. Reservoir connectivity within the point bar depends on the architectural style and is linked to the accretion process. These bars accreted by deposition and reshaping of small bar fragments that were commonly reworked, resulting in a highly fragmented and heterogeneous architecture. This differs from models of point bars that result from large sheets that accumulate across accretion surfaces producing larger discrete reservoir compartments. Bars of the type identified here are identified in the modern Powder River and result from a regime of frequent irregular floods. The high level of reworking and localized accretion noted for this bar is consistent with other observations from modern bars that report local short term accretion during point bar growth to be an order of magnitude slower than long-term average point bar growth rates. We produced a 3D Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) model of strata of a single 9m thick point bar in the Late Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation of the Steveville area of Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. The highly dissected landscape and sparse vegetation in the study area provide optimal conditions to observe bar internal architecture in three dimensions from TLS data, permitting us to complete a 3D architectural-element analysis of a 200m by 150m cube in a single point bar. The goal of this 3D fine scale architectural-element analysis is to add increased understanding of the connectivity within point bars at the scale of a steam chamber through better constraint on the distribution of lithologies and surfaces. Lithologies of this point bar record a fining upward trend from basal lower medium to fine sand, upward into siltstone, mudstone, as well as peaty clay on the bar top. The base is also more homogeneous, consisting mainly of lower medium sand with some silt drapes. Heterolithics increase with the general fining upward trend and include siltstones and mudstones. Mapped accretion surfaces could not be traced either in down dip or strike direction for more than a few meters before being truncated by younger accretion events. Point bar deposits consist of centimeter to meter vertical-scaled and imbricately stacked unit bars. Consecutive unit bars are commonly reshaped by erosion and/or depositionally draped. This highly fragmented accretion style results in a lack of accretion surfaces that span the length or height of the full point bar. Reservoir connectivity within the point bar depends on the architectural style and is linked to the accretion process. These bars accreted by deposition and reshaping of small bar fragments that were commonly reworked, resulting in a highly fragmented and heterogeneous architecture. This differs from models of point bars that result from large sheets that accumulate across accretion surfaces producing larger discrete reservoir compartments. Bars of the type identified here are identified in the modern Powder River and result from a regime of frequent irregular floods. The high level of reworking and localized accretion noted for this bar is consistent with other observations from modern bars that report local short term accretion during point bar growth to be an order of magnitude slower than long-term average point bar growth rates. Panel_15314 Panel_15314 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Eolian and fluvial processes operate coevally in most desert-margin settings to generate a range of styles of sedimentary interaction that are documented from both modern arid systems and analogous ancient preserved outcrop and subsurface successions. Such styles of system interaction give rise to considerable complexity in terms of sedimentology and preserved stratigraphy. The physical boundary between geomorphic systems in hot deserts is dynamic such that facies belts undertake considerable lateral shift over time with the result that preserved sequence architectures exhibit complexity arising from system interactions that operate at a range of spatial and temporal scales from local to regional. An improved understanding of factors that govern these multiple scales of interaction is important for prediction of preserved stratigraphic architecture and therefore for assessment of fluid-flow properties and for development of well placement strategy in mixed eolian-fluvial reservoir prospects. A database has been developed to record the temporal and spatial scales over which eolian and fluvial events operate and interact in a range of modern and ancient desert-margin settings. Data have been collated using high-resolution satellite imagery, field observation and subsurface data. Ten distinct styles of eolian-fluvial interaction are recognized: fluvial incursions aligned parallel to the trend of linear chains of eolian dune forms; fluvial incursions oriented perpendicular to the trend of eolian dunes; bifurcation of fluvial systems around eolian dunes; through-going fluvial channel networks that cross entire eolian dune-fields; flooding of dune-fields due to regionally elevated water-table levels associated with fluvial floods; fluvial incursions emanating from a single point source into dune-fields; incursions emanating from multiple sheet sources; cessation of the encroachment of entire eolian dune-fields by fluvial systems; termination of fluvial channel networks into playas within eolian dunefields; long-lived versus short-lived styles of fluvial incursion. The database of case-study examples is employed to develop a series of quantitative facies models with which to account for dynamic spatial and temporal aspects of eolian-fluvial system behavior. Models can be used to predict the arrangement of architectural elements that define gross-scale system architecture in a variety of mixed eolian-fluvial reservoirs. Eolian and fluvial processes operate coevally in most desert-margin settings to generate a range of styles of sedimentary interaction that are documented from both modern arid systems and analogous ancient preserved outcrop and subsurface successions. Such styles of system interaction give rise to considerable complexity in terms of sedimentology and preserved stratigraphy. The physical boundary between geomorphic systems in hot deserts is dynamic such that facies belts undertake considerable lateral shift over time with the result that preserved sequence architectures exhibit complexity arising from system interactions that operate at a range of spatial and temporal scales from local to regional. An improved understanding of factors that govern these multiple scales of interaction is important for prediction of preserved stratigraphic architecture and therefore for assessment of fluid-flow properties and for development of well placement strategy in mixed eolian-fluvial reservoir prospects. A database has been developed to record the temporal and spatial scales over which eolian and fluvial events operate and interact in a range of modern and ancient desert-margin settings. Data have been collated using high-resolution satellite imagery, field observation and subsurface data. Ten distinct styles of eolian-fluvial interaction are recognized: fluvial incursions aligned parallel to the trend of linear chains of eolian dune forms; fluvial incursions oriented perpendicular to the trend of eolian dunes; bifurcation of fluvial systems around eolian dunes; through-going fluvial channel networks that cross entire eolian dune-fields; flooding of dune-fields due to regionally elevated water-table levels associated with fluvial floods; fluvial incursions emanating from a single point source into dune-fields; incursions emanating from multiple sheet sources; cessation of the encroachment of entire eolian dune-fields by fluvial systems; termination of fluvial channel networks into playas within eolian dunefields; long-lived versus short-lived styles of fluvial incursion. The database of case-study examples is employed to develop a series of quantitative facies models with which to account for dynamic spatial and temporal aspects of eolian-fluvial system behavior. Models can be used to predict the arrangement of architectural elements that define gross-scale system architecture in a variety of mixed eolian-fluvial reservoirs. Panel_15319 Panel_15319 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Tidally-influenced fluvial deposits record the transition in process regime from fully fluvial to open marine conditions. The transition is complicated by spatial and temporal variability in fluvial, wave and tidal processes and their interactions. A detailed case study along a 70 km-long, dip-oriented transect in the Campanian Neslen Formation provides a recognition framework for assigning outcropping successions more accurately into fluvial- tidal- and marine-dominated zones within a coastal plain setting. The Neslen Formation has been studied at twelve localities between Tusher Canyon and East Canyon in the Book Cliffs of Eastern Utah from the top of the Sego Sandstone to the tidal-to-wave dominated Thompson Canyon Sandstone Bed in the middle of the formation. A total of 85 stratigraphic panels and 41 vertical profiles have been collected in order to identify systematic changes in lithofacies, sedimentary structures, architectural elements, and ichnofacies present in tidally influenced fluvial channel elements. Coal zones and marine sandstones provide stratigraphic markers. Analysis of outcropping point-bar deposits demonstrates systematic downstream changes in their external geometry, relationship to neighbouring elements, and in the internal architecture of these elements. Although sandbodies become progressively more partitioned by inclined heterolithic strata and have increasingly widespread indicators of tidal and brackish-water influence in more distal settings, exceptions abound, which likely reflect factors such as position on the point-bar surface on inner channel bends. Data from a range of modern systems interpreted to have accumulated under comparable depositional conditions to the Neslen Formation serve to place the succession within a broader geomorphic context. Analysis suggests that a series of different sedimentary tidal and ichnological brackish-water indicators are found at predictable positions along the tidal-fluvial transition zone. This enables fluvial deposits with varying amounts of tidal influence to be placed within an overall environmental and palaeogeographic context, even with limited data. The construction of a semi-quantitative depositional model serves as a tool that can be applied to analogous subsurface reservoir settings. Tidally-influenced fluvial deposits record the transition in process regime from fully fluvial to open marine conditions. The transition is complicated by spatial and temporal variability in fluvial, wave and tidal processes and their interactions. A detailed case study along a 70 km-long, dip-oriented transect in the Campanian Neslen Formation provides a recognition framework for assigning outcropping successions more accurately into fluvial- tidal- and marine-dominated zones within a coastal plain setting. The Neslen Formation has been studied at twelve localities between Tusher Canyon and East Canyon in the Book Cliffs of Eastern Utah from the top of the Sego Sandstone to the tidal-to-wave dominated Thompson Canyon Sandstone Bed in the middle of the formation. A total of 85 stratigraphic panels and 41 vertical profiles have been collected in order to identify systematic changes in lithofacies, sedimentary structures, architectural elements, and ichnofacies present in tidally influenced fluvial channel elements. Coal zones and marine sandstones provide stratigraphic markers. Analysis of outcropping point-bar deposits demonstrates systematic downstream changes in their external geometry, relationship to neighbouring elements, and in the internal architecture of these elements. Although sandbodies become progressively more partitioned by inclined heterolithic strata and have increasingly widespread indicators of tidal and brackish-water influence in more distal settings, exceptions abound, which likely reflect factors such as position on the point-bar surface on inner channel bends. Data from a range of modern systems interpreted to have accumulated under comparable depositional conditions to the Neslen Formation serve to place the succession within a broader geomorphic context. Analysis suggests that a series of different sedimentary tidal and ichnological brackish-water indicators are found at predictable positions along the tidal-fluvial transition zone. This enables fluvial deposits with varying amounts of tidal influence to be placed within an overall environmental and palaeogeographic context, even with limited data. The construction of a semi-quantitative depositional model serves as a tool that can be applied to analogous subsurface reservoir settings. Panel_15321 Panel_15321 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14469 Panel_14469 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fluvial megafans have been extensively studied what concerns the shape, progradation across alluvial plains, building extensive sedimentary bodies, channel amalgamation degree and channel size and type. However, the vertical and lateral facies, grain size and bed thickness trends are not well understood, except for the large-scale across-fan changes. Fluvial megafans build by channel avulsions, due to high deposition and channel bed aggradation rates. Individual upward-coarsening and –thickening avulsion packages, consisting of floodplain fines, overlain by successively thicker and more amalgamated splay deposits, followed by thick channel sandstones, are the basic building blocks of these sedimentary bodies. Modern megafans indicate that avulsions tend to cluster in certain areas than swipe the whole fan surface systematically. These major avulsion clusters form lobes, and the lobe avulsions build the megafans. As fans are considerably narrower in their proximal apex, and this is also where the channels are largest, amalgamated channel successions with thick-bedded coarse channel fills form due to high channel return frequency. The channel size and amalgamation degree decrease outward in the fans. Thus, as fans prograde, overall upward-coarsening and –thickening successions form, or as fans retrograde the successions fine and thin upward. Modern megafans tend to contain 3-4 lobes, ca 50 km wide. Similar to the individual avulsion packages, the lobes show upward-coarsening and thickening trends, but on a larger scale. Thus, there are at least 3 different scales of grain size and bed thickness trends. This study aims to quantify these vertical and lateral grain size and bed thickness trends in the megafans of the Williams Fork Fm in the Piceance Basin and the Green River Fm in the Uinta Basin. Statistical correlation analysis and Fourier transform algorithm are used to determine the covariance and cyclicity. Understanding and quantifying these vertical trends and their lateral scales is a powerful tool for hydrocarbon reservoir prediction and allows for better understanding of the megafan dynamics, such as avulsions, lobe switching, progradation and backstepping. We also explore whether there are intermediate scale packages, between the individual avulsion and the lobe scales, with the aim to link vertical grain size and bed thickness trends to specific lateral scales. This study links the specific grain size and bed thickness trends to facies changes. Fluvial megafans have been extensively studied what concerns the shape, progradation across alluvial plains, building extensive sedimentary bodies, channel amalgamation degree and channel size and type. However, the vertical and lateral facies, grain size and bed thickness trends are not well understood, except for the large-scale across-fan changes. Fluvial megafans build by channel avulsions, due to high deposition and channel bed aggradation rates. Individual upward-coarsening and –thickening avulsion packages, consisting of floodplain fines, overlain by successively thicker and more amalgamated splay deposits, followed by thick channel sandstones, are the basic building blocks of these sedimentary bodies. Modern megafans indicate that avulsions tend to cluster in certain areas than swipe the whole fan surface systematically. These major avulsion clusters form lobes, and the lobe avulsions build the megafans. As fans are considerably narrower in their proximal apex, and this is also where the channels are largest, amalgamated channel successions with thick-bedded coarse channel fills form due to high channel return frequency. The channel size and amalgamation degree decrease outward in the fans. Thus, as fans prograde, overall upward-coarsening and –thickening successions form, or as fans retrograde the successions fine and thin upward. Modern megafans tend to contain 3-4 lobes, ca 50 km wide. Similar to the individual avulsion packages, the lobes show upward-coarsening and thickening trends, but on a larger scale. Thus, there are at least 3 different scales of grain size and bed thickness trends. This study aims to quantify these vertical and lateral grain size and bed thickness trends in the megafans of the Williams Fork Fm in the Piceance Basin and the Green River Fm in the Uinta Basin. Statistical correlation analysis and Fourier transform algorithm are used to determine the covariance and cyclicity. Understanding and quantifying these vertical trends and their lateral scales is a powerful tool for hydrocarbon reservoir prediction and allows for better understanding of the megafan dynamics, such as avulsions, lobe switching, progradation and backstepping. We also explore whether there are intermediate scale packages, between the individual avulsion and the lobe scales, with the aim to link vertical grain size and bed thickness trends to specific lateral scales. This study links the specific grain size and bed thickness trends to facies changes. Panel_15333 Panel_15333 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Cretaceous sedimentary succession of NW India is not well documented due to limited exposure in the desert region of Rajasthan. Here, we describe the stratigraphy and sedimentology of outcrops of the Ghaggar-Hakra Formation of probable Lower Cretaceous age from the Sarnoo Hills, which is used to constrain their correlatives from subsurface core data in the Barmer Basin. At outcrop, the Ghaggar-Hakra Formation comprises three fluvial sandstone sequences of varying depositional type, interbedded with coeval floodplain deposits. At the base the Darjaniyon-ki Dhani Sandstone is composed of granule-grade quartzitic conglomerates that form braid bars deposited in a low sinuosity, gravel bedload fluvial system. The overlying Sarnoo Sandstone contains medium- to very coarse-grained, cross-bedded sandstones that pass upwards into fine-grained rippled sandstones, deposited as in-channel bars and point bars, of a high sinuosity, mixed load fluvial system. Lastly, the Nosar Sandstone is composed of very coarse- to medium-grained, planar and trough cross-bedded quartz-arenites, representing in-channel dunes displaying evidence of a low sinuosity bedload dominant fluvial system. The interbedded mudstones are pedogenic in nature, with rhizoliths, slickensides and soil mottle textures that formed in a vegetated floodplain. In the subsurface, two separate palaeoenvironments are identified: 1) a low sinuosity system with associated floodplain deposits and; 2) a lacustrine system. The low sinuosity river facies comprises very coarse- to fine-grained, cross-bedded and rippled sandstones. Associated floodplain deposits are mottled, rooted and fractured. The detrital composition of these sandstones at outcrop and in the subsurface comprises of quartz, lithics, heavy minerals and clays. However, the authigenic minerals vary. Within the subsurface with kaolinite, quartz overgrowths, siderite and pyrite cements. At outcrop there are quartz overgrowths, calcite, dolomite and haematite cements with kaolinite clays. The Ghaggar-Hakra Formation was deposited within a maturing upwards fluvial system. The current view of the regional tectonic framework is one of an actively extending terrane, possibly related to transtension between the Greater Indian and Madagascan continents during Gondwana fragmentation. Ultimately, this work helps the understanding of the regional tectonics and depositional systems of Rajasthan during the Lower Cretaceous. The Cretaceous sedimentary succession of NW India is not well documented due to limited exposure in the desert region of Rajasthan. Here, we describe the stratigraphy and sedimentology of outcrops of the Ghaggar-Hakra Formation of probable Lower Cretaceous age from the Sarnoo Hills, which is used to constrain their correlatives from subsurface core data in the Barmer Basin. At outcrop, the Ghaggar-Hakra Formation comprises three fluvial sandstone sequences of varying depositional type, interbedded with coeval floodplain deposits. At the base the Darjaniyon-ki Dhani Sandstone is composed of granule-grade quartzitic conglomerates that form braid bars deposited in a low sinuosity, gravel bedload fluvial system. The overlying Sarnoo Sandstone contains medium- to very coarse-grained, cross-bedded sandstones that pass upwards into fine-grained rippled sandstones, deposited as in-channel bars and point bars, of a high sinuosity, mixed load fluvial system. Lastly, the Nosar Sandstone is composed of very coarse- to medium-grained, planar and trough cross-bedded quartz-arenites, representing in-channel dunes displaying evidence of a low sinuosity bedload dominant fluvial system. The interbedded mudstones are pedogenic in nature, with rhizoliths, slickensides and soil mottle textures that formed in a vegetated floodplain. In the subsurface, two separate palaeoenvironments are identified: 1) a low sinuosity system with associated floodplain deposits and; 2) a lacustrine system. The low sinuosity river facies comprises very coarse- to fine-grained, cross-bedded and rippled sandstones. Associated floodplain deposits are mottled, rooted and fractured. The detrital composition of these sandstones at outcrop and in the subsurface comprises of quartz, lithics, heavy minerals and clays. However, the authigenic minerals vary. Within the subsurface with kaolinite, quartz overgrowths, siderite and pyrite cements. At outcrop there are quartz overgrowths, calcite, dolomite and haematite cements with kaolinite clays. The Ghaggar-Hakra Formation was deposited within a maturing upwards fluvial system. The current view of the regional tectonic framework is one of an actively extending terrane, possibly related to transtension between the Greater Indian and Madagascan continents during Gondwana fragmentation. Ultimately, this work helps the understanding of the regional tectonics and depositional systems of Rajasthan during the Lower Cretaceous. Panel_15331 Panel_15331 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Cretaceous fluvial Cedar Mountain Formation crops out southwest of Green River, Utah across a 62 square kilometer area. Outcrops consist of multiple fluvial channels belts that are exposed in three-dimensions as sinuous ridges across the field area. The exposed segments of the channel belts range in length from 0.75 km to 6 km long. This study focuses on one portion of one channel belt that is exceptionally well exposed over a down-current distance of 0.75 km in length. Strata in this segment are dominated by down-stream accreting bars, with a minor amount of lateral accreting bars. The channel belt of interest has a width (w) of 80 meters, average thickness (t) of 6.4 meters, sinuosity of 1.2, radius of curvature of 153.55 meters, and aspect ratio (w/t) of 12.5. The exceptional exposure of this channel-belt segment provides a unique opportunity to document the sequential evolution and lithofacies distributions. Data collected in this study include detailed stratigraphic columns, paleocurrents, and interpreted photopanels, which were in turn used to create longitudinal and lateral cross-sections of the channel belt. Results are the following. First, the channel evolved in a three-stage process: (1) incision, (2) lateral migration, and (3) filling. Features associated with the incisional phase are large-scale gutters filled by conglomerate composed of extraformatinal clasts and carbonate nodules from the adjacent floodplain. Strata associated with the lateral migration stage are composed of laterally accreting point bars located at the apexes of the channel bends and are composed predominantly of planar to ripple laminated sandstones. Strata associated with the final filling of the channel belt are composed of downstream accreting bars containing cross-stratified sandstones. Measurements and concepts resulting from this study shed light on the long-term evolution of sinuous, fluvial-channel belts and can be use to constrain reservoir models of similar fluvial channels. The Cretaceous fluvial Cedar Mountain Formation crops out southwest of Green River, Utah across a 62 square kilometer area. Outcrops consist of multiple fluvial channels belts that are exposed in three-dimensions as sinuous ridges across the field area. The exposed segments of the channel belts range in length from 0.75 km to 6 km long. This study focuses on one portion of one channel belt that is exceptionally well exposed over a down-current distance of 0.75 km in length. Strata in this segment are dominated by down-stream accreting bars, with a minor amount of lateral accreting bars. The channel belt of interest has a width (w) of 80 meters, average thickness (t) of 6.4 meters, sinuosity of 1.2, radius of curvature of 153.55 meters, and aspect ratio (w/t) of 12.5. The exceptional exposure of this channel-belt segment provides a unique opportunity to document the sequential evolution and lithofacies distributions. Data collected in this study include detailed stratigraphic columns, paleocurrents, and interpreted photopanels, which were in turn used to create longitudinal and lateral cross-sections of the channel belt. Results are the following. First, the channel evolved in a three-stage process: (1) incision, (2) lateral migration, and (3) filling. Features associated with the incisional phase are large-scale gutters filled by conglomerate composed of extraformatinal clasts and carbonate nodules from the adjacent floodplain. Strata associated with the lateral migration stage are composed of laterally accreting point bars located at the apexes of the channel bends and are composed predominantly of planar to ripple laminated sandstones. Strata associated with the final filling of the channel belt are composed of downstream accreting bars containing cross-stratified sandstones. Measurements and concepts resulting from this study shed light on the long-term evolution of sinuous, fluvial-channel belts and can be use to constrain reservoir models of similar fluvial channels. Panel_15330 Panel_15330 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Point-bar elements that represent preserved remnants of meandering fluvial channel systems are widely recognized in the rock record. Although the fundamental mechanisms responsible for determining the facies architecture of these bodies have long been known, the specific processes that give rise to the wide variability in internal facies compositions and arrangements remain poorly constrained. This study documents and accounts for the facies architectures of a range of ancient outcropping point-bar successions via comparisons to a GIS-based analysis of the morphology of modern point bars. Results from four ancient case studies are presented here: a Bashkerian delta-plain succession, Pembrokeshire, UK, and 3 Campanian lower alluvial-plain successions from the Mesa Verde Group, Utah. Each accumulated under different inferred accommodation regimes and in positions that vary in position along the fluvial profile. Fifty studied point-bar elements are each 3 to 12 m thick and internally comprise of sand-prone strata with subordinate proportions of gravel, silt and clay. Many sandstone packages are delineated by muddy and organic drapes on surfaces inclined up to 12° in the direction of point bar propagation. Carbonaceous mud drapes vary in composition, thickness, spacing, lateral and downslope continuity as a function of both position within individual point-bar elements and position along the alluvial profile. For individual point-bar elements, the abundance, thickness and lateral continuity of mud drapes is greater on the downstream side of the apex of reconstructed meander bends, especially in high-accommodation systems. Regionally, the incidence of mud-draped surfaces is greater in the lower parts of alluvial plains. Forty meanders have been assessed from each of 20 modern fluvial systems: 800 point-bar shapes have been recorded to devise a novel classification scheme. Identified end-member types form the basis for a predictive model of controls on point-bar heterogeneity. The integration of outcrop characterization and GIS study of variability of point-bar morphology in modern river systems has enabled development of a classification framework that can be used as a tool for the prediction of point-bar architecture as a function of multiple autogenic and allogenic controls (e.g. climatic setting, subsidence rate, scale of system, gradient, sediment load type, degree of tidal influence). Point-bar elements that represent preserved remnants of meandering fluvial channel systems are widely recognized in the rock record. Although the fundamental mechanisms responsible for determining the facies architecture of these bodies have long been known, the specific processes that give rise to the wide variability in internal facies compositions and arrangements remain poorly constrained. This study documents and accounts for the facies architectures of a range of ancient outcropping point-bar successions via comparisons to a GIS-based analysis of the morphology of modern point bars. Results from four ancient case studies are presented here: a Bashkerian delta-plain succession, Pembrokeshire, UK, and 3 Campanian lower alluvial-plain successions from the Mesa Verde Group, Utah. Each accumulated under different inferred accommodation regimes and in positions that vary in position along the fluvial profile. Fifty studied point-bar elements are each 3 to 12 m thick and internally comprise of sand-prone strata with subordinate proportions of gravel, silt and clay. Many sandstone packages are delineated by muddy and organic drapes on surfaces inclined up to 12° in the direction of point bar propagation. Carbonaceous mud drapes vary in composition, thickness, spacing, lateral and downslope continuity as a function of both position within individual point-bar elements and position along the alluvial profile. For individual point-bar elements, the abundance, thickness and lateral continuity of mud drapes is greater on the downstream side of the apex of reconstructed meander bends, especially in high-accommodation systems. Regionally, the incidence of mud-draped surfaces is greater in the lower parts of alluvial plains. Forty meanders have been assessed from each of 20 modern fluvial systems: 800 point-bar shapes have been recorded to devise a novel classification scheme. Identified end-member types form the basis for a predictive model of controls on point-bar heterogeneity. The integration of outcrop characterization and GIS study of variability of point-bar morphology in modern river systems has enabled development of a classification framework that can be used as a tool for the prediction of point-bar architecture as a function of multiple autogenic and allogenic controls (e.g. climatic setting, subsidence rate, scale of system, gradient, sediment load type, degree of tidal influence). Panel_15335 Panel_15335 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Late Cretaceous to Paleocene strata of the Tres Pasos and Dorotea formations, exposed along the Andean margin in the Santa Cruz Province of Southern Argentina, were deposited in the Magallanes Basin, a retro-arc foreland basin. These strata are well exposed east of the Cordillera de los Andes belt thrust and were studied approximately 50 km east of the leading thrust. The Tres Pasos Formation consists of upward coarsening siltstones and sandstones, with hummocky and swaley cross stratification. These are interpreted as distal to medial shelfal deposits (lower shoreface to offshore). The top of the Tres Pasos Formation is an erosional unconformity, and overlain by over 200 meters of Dorotea Formation. Outcrops of the Dorotea Formation can be traced laterally for over 15 km of dip-oriented section. Although the Magallanes Basin has been the subject of many studies, details on the depositional environments of the Dorotea Formation are limited, despite quality outcrop exposure in the Santa Cruz Province. The Dorotea Formation is divided into two informal stratigraphic units, both dominated by fluvial strata and overbank deposits. Upward-fining channel-fill sandstones in the lower unit average 5-10 m in thickness and are dominated by trough cross stratification. Those channels at the base of the section have marine influence, and contain abraded marine fossils (bivalves, gastropods) and marine trace fossils (Ophiomorpha, Schaubcylindrichnus). Channelized sandstones are separated by overbank fines interpreted as flood plain deposits with poorly developed paleosols. Lateral accretion deposits were uncommon, and most channel-fill sandstones are interpreted as straight to low-sinuosity systems. The upper unit contains channel-fill sandstones that reflect an increase in fluvial energy. In addition to an overall increase in average grain size from fine/medium to medium/coarse sand, many of the channelized sandstones are conglomeratic at the base. Clast size averages 1 cm, but ranges up to 7 cm in diameter. Channelized sandstones in the upper unit are 10-15 m thick, some of which are amalgamated. No lateral accretion was seen in the upper unit, and the majority of these channel-fill sandstones are interpreted as deposits of high-energy fluvial systems. Individual channelized sandstones can be traced for hundreds of meters across the outcrop exposure. No significant lateral facies changes were observed across the 10 km extent of outcrop exposure. Late Cretaceous to Paleocene strata of the Tres Pasos and Dorotea formations, exposed along the Andean margin in the Santa Cruz Province of Southern Argentina, were deposited in the Magallanes Basin, a retro-arc foreland basin. These strata are well exposed east of the Cordillera de los Andes belt thrust and were studied approximately 50 km east of the leading thrust. The Tres Pasos Formation consists of upward coarsening siltstones and sandstones, with hummocky and swaley cross stratification. These are interpreted as distal to medial shelfal deposits (lower shoreface to offshore). The top of the Tres Pasos Formation is an erosional unconformity, and overlain by over 200 meters of Dorotea Formation. Outcrops of the Dorotea Formation can be traced laterally for over 15 km of dip-oriented section. Although the Magallanes Basin has been the subject of many studies, details on the depositional environments of the Dorotea Formation are limited, despite quality outcrop exposure in the Santa Cruz Province. The Dorotea Formation is divided into two informal stratigraphic units, both dominated by fluvial strata and overbank deposits. Upward-fining channel-fill sandstones in the lower unit average 5-10 m in thickness and are dominated by trough cross stratification. Those channels at the base of the section have marine influence, and contain abraded marine fossils (bivalves, gastropods) and marine trace fossils (Ophiomorpha, Schaubcylindrichnus). Channelized sandstones are separated by overbank fines interpreted as flood plain deposits with poorly developed paleosols. Lateral accretion deposits were uncommon, and most channel-fill sandstones are interpreted as straight to low-sinuosity systems. The upper unit contains channel-fill sandstones that reflect an increase in fluvial energy. In addition to an overall increase in average grain size from fine/medium to medium/coarse sand, many of the channelized sandstones are conglomeratic at the base. Clast size averages 1 cm, but ranges up to 7 cm in diameter. Channelized sandstones in the upper unit are 10-15 m thick, some of which are amalgamated. No lateral accretion was seen in the upper unit, and the majority of these channel-fill sandstones are interpreted as deposits of high-energy fluvial systems. Individual channelized sandstones can be traced for hundreds of meters across the outcrop exposure. No significant lateral facies changes were observed across the 10 km extent of outcrop exposure. Panel_15327 Panel_15327 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The analysis of a large quantity of drilling core, paleontology, geochemistry and geophysics data revealed several features of the deposition of the Ek1-Es4x members in the Jiyang depression: (1) the paleotopography of the gentle slope belt had an extremely low gradient; (2) the paleoclimate frequently alternated between dry and wet periods in a generally arid setting; (3) there was strong weathering around the periphery of the basin; (4) the lake was very shallow; (5) the lake level frequently rose and fell; and (6) the sedimentary environment of the gentle slope belt was an over-flooding lake. All of these factors provided favorable geological conditions for the development of an over-flooding lake delta. The lithologies of the continental over-flooding lake delta deposits are complex and diverse. The compositional maturity is moderate to low, and the grain size distribution curves and sedimentary structures indicate the presence of both gravity and traction currents. The sedimentary microfacies associations consist of a combination of ordered superposition of flood channels, distributary channels and sheet sands. The delta exhibits a weak foreset seismic reflection. The over-flooding lake delta deposits are laterally extensive. The sandstone content is high, and the individual sandstone beds are thin. The flood channel and distributary channel deposits exhibit evidence of bifurcation and lateral migration. The distribution of the sandbodies and the oxidation color of the mudstones provide evidence of cyclic deposition. The paleoclimate was the dominant factor controlling the development of the over-flooding lake delta. Due to the frequently alternating wet and dry paleoclimates, the over-flooding lake delta is characterized by the development of a broad upper plain and a lower delta plain. The upper delta plain is characterized by flood channel deposits, whereas the lower delta plain is represented by distributary channel deposits. The transition zone is characterized by the interaction of flood channels and distributary channels. Due to fault activity, the sandbodies of the over-flooding lake delta were juxtaposed against hydrocarbon source rocks, which was favorable for the development of lithologic reservoirs or structural-lithologic reservoirs. The lower delta plain deposits comprise the most favorable reservoirs. The analysis of a large quantity of drilling core, paleontology, geochemistry and geophysics data revealed several features of the deposition of the Ek1-Es4x members in the Jiyang depression: (1) the paleotopography of the gentle slope belt had an extremely low gradient; (2) the paleoclimate frequently alternated between dry and wet periods in a generally arid setting; (3) there was strong weathering around the periphery of the basin; (4) the lake was very shallow; (5) the lake level frequently rose and fell; and (6) the sedimentary environment of the gentle slope belt was an over-flooding lake. All of these factors provided favorable geological conditions for the development of an over-flooding lake delta. The lithologies of the continental over-flooding lake delta deposits are complex and diverse. The compositional maturity is moderate to low, and the grain size distribution curves and sedimentary structures indicate the presence of both gravity and traction currents. The sedimentary microfacies associations consist of a combination of ordered superposition of flood channels, distributary channels and sheet sands. The delta exhibits a weak foreset seismic reflection. The over-flooding lake delta deposits are laterally extensive. The sandstone content is high, and the individual sandstone beds are thin. The flood channel and distributary channel deposits exhibit evidence of bifurcation and lateral migration. The distribution of the sandbodies and the oxidation color of the mudstones provide evidence of cyclic deposition. The paleoclimate was the dominant factor controlling the development of the over-flooding lake delta. Due to the frequently alternating wet and dry paleoclimates, the over-flooding lake delta is characterized by the development of a broad upper plain and a lower delta plain. The upper delta plain is characterized by flood channel deposits, whereas the lower delta plain is represented by distributary channel deposits. The transition zone is characterized by the interaction of flood channels and distributary channels. Due to fault activity, the sandbodies of the over-flooding lake delta were juxtaposed against hydrocarbon source rocks, which was favorable for the development of lithologic reservoirs or structural-lithologic reservoirs. The lower delta plain deposits comprise the most favorable reservoirs. Panel_15332 Panel_15332 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

There are no published high-resolution attempts to resolve the stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous Castlegate Sandstone by correlating from the well-studied and depositional-dip-oriented Book Cliffs to the depositional-strike-oriented and basin-proximal Wasatch Plateau. In this study, both tectonic and eustatic signals augmented the establishing of a sequence stratigraphic framework for the highly-amalgamated, fluvial Castlegate Sandstone along the northern Wasatch Plateau. The study results indicate that its basal third-order (low-frequency) sequence boundary, which separates it from the Blackhawk Formation below, has a prominent erosional relief of nearly 30 m. The lower Castlegate Sandstone, which onlaps onto this basal sequence boundary, tapers abruptly southward as correlated from north and the type-section. Another (third-order) unconformity separates the Castlegate Sandstone from the overlying conglomeritic Price River Formation. Higher frequency sequence stratigraphic surfaces were identified within the Castlegate Sandstone, and, for the first time, the surface coeval to the base of the Sego Sandstone (a Member of the Castlegate Sandstone) has been correlated along the Wasatch plateau. This high-frequency surface that divides the Castlegate Sandstone into lower and upper units was commonly found down-cutting into an organic-rich siltstone and displaying Teredolites longissimus burrows, which is indicative of marginal-marine setting. Channelized sandbodies of the Castlegate Sandstone show pervasive basal erosions with mud rip-up clasts. Sedimentary structures include predominately trough cross-bedding with subordinate ripple cross-lamination, parallel lamination, convolution, and sole marks. Using dune-set thickness thus dune height as a proxy for paleo-river water depth, the study results indicate that channels were deeper and were filled by coarser grained sediments in the southern part of the study area. Closer to the type section, thin overbank deposits are better preserved, and finer sands filled shallower channels. There are no published high-resolution attempts to resolve the stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous Castlegate Sandstone by correlating from the well-studied and depositional-dip-oriented Book Cliffs to the depositional-strike-oriented and basin-proximal Wasatch Plateau. In this study, both tectonic and eustatic signals augmented the establishing of a sequence stratigraphic framework for the highly-amalgamated, fluvial Castlegate Sandstone along the northern Wasatch Plateau. The study results indicate that its basal third-order (low-frequency) sequence boundary, which separates it from the Blackhawk Formation below, has a prominent erosional relief of nearly 30 m. The lower Castlegate Sandstone, which onlaps onto this basal sequence boundary, tapers abruptly southward as correlated from north and the type-section. Another (third-order) unconformity separates the Castlegate Sandstone from the overlying conglomeritic Price River Formation. Higher frequency sequence stratigraphic surfaces were identified within the Castlegate Sandstone, and, for the first time, the surface coeval to the base of the Sego Sandstone (a Member of the Castlegate Sandstone) has been correlated along the Wasatch plateau. This high-frequency surface that divides the Castlegate Sandstone into lower and upper units was commonly found down-cutting into an organic-rich siltstone and displaying Teredolites longissimus burrows, which is indicative of marginal-marine setting. Channelized sandbodies of the Castlegate Sandstone show pervasive basal erosions with mud rip-up clasts. Sedimentary structures include predominately trough cross-bedding with subordinate ripple cross-lamination, parallel lamination, convolution, and sole marks. Using dune-set thickness thus dune height as a proxy for paleo-river water depth, the study results indicate that channels were deeper and were filled by coarser grained sediments in the southern part of the study area. Closer to the type section, thin overbank deposits are better preserved, and finer sands filled shallower channels. Panel_15329 Panel_15329 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fluvial sandstones serve as important reservoirs in petroleum geology, but these deposits can be difficult to characterize due to the complex three-dimensional arrangement of lithologies and sedimentary facies. We use Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning to capture three-dimensional exposures of fluvial sandstones from the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation in central Utah. Structure-from-Motion uses multiple overlapping images of the same object combined with image-based terrain extraction algorithms to reconstruct the location of individual points in a three-dimensional reference frame. We collected over 3000 photos of the strata from approximately 100 meters above the outcrop surface using a Helikite-mounted camera. The resulting digital terrain model produced by SfM photogrammetry has a resolution of approximately 10-20 cm and is perfect for providing a regional framework. Terrestrial laser scanning was used to capture specific features at a 1-2 cm resolution. These georeferenced data sets were augmented with measured sections, facies mapping and outcrop observations. We examined a specific sandstone body in the Salt Wash Member that is exposed in vertical, lateral, and plan-view orientations. This sandstone is composed of at least two smaller-order sandstone bodies, the upper of which scours into the lower unit. Paleocurrents from trough cross-strata are typically parallel to the trend of the sandstone bodies. Both sandstone bodies contain lateral accretion sets, trough cross-stratification, and fining upward packages. Pebble- and granule-sized sediments are common throughout the deposit. Many of the uppermost sandstone beds in the area are bioturbated. The terrestrial laser scanning and SfM data allow the distance between accretion sets, the spacing between cross-stratification sets, and other features to be measured accurately. These data can be used to constrain input parameters for stochastic reservoir models. Fluvial sandstones serve as important reservoirs in petroleum geology, but these deposits can be difficult to characterize due to the complex three-dimensional arrangement of lithologies and sedimentary facies. We use Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning to capture three-dimensional exposures of fluvial sandstones from the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation in central Utah. Structure-from-Motion uses multiple overlapping images of the same object combined with image-based terrain extraction algorithms to reconstruct the location of individual points in a three-dimensional reference frame. We collected over 3000 photos of the strata from approximately 100 meters above the outcrop surface using a Helikite-mounted camera. The resulting digital terrain model produced by SfM photogrammetry has a resolution of approximately 10-20 cm and is perfect for providing a regional framework. Terrestrial laser scanning was used to capture specific features at a 1-2 cm resolution. These georeferenced data sets were augmented with measured sections, facies mapping and outcrop observations. We examined a specific sandstone body in the Salt Wash Member that is exposed in vertical, lateral, and plan-view orientations. This sandstone is composed of at least two smaller-order sandstone bodies, the upper of which scours into the lower unit. Paleocurrents from trough cross-strata are typically parallel to the trend of the sandstone bodies. Both sandstone bodies contain lateral accretion sets, trough cross-stratification, and fining upward packages. Pebble- and granule-sized sediments are common throughout the deposit. Many of the uppermost sandstone beds in the area are bioturbated. The terrestrial laser scanning and SfM data allow the distance between accretion sets, the spacing between cross-stratification sets, and other features to be measured accurately. These data can be used to constrain input parameters for stochastic reservoir models. Panel_15334 Panel_15334 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Models for distributary channel networks argue that rapidly aggrading systems that are presumably high accommodation will convert from low-accommodation single channel to distributary systems as they encounter the new conditions. If distributary channel systems are also bifurcating systems, it follows that channel size should reduce from low-accommodation to high-accommodation settings. Poorly drained floodplains with a lower energy regime and relatively high water table should record very high accommodation conditions and should particularly be susceptible to developing bifurcating distributary systems. We tested this hypothesis by comparing channel dimensions and lithofacies in high- vs. low- accommodation deposits in the Pennsylvanian strata of the Princess and Conemaugh Formations of eastern Kentucky. A valley complex 5-8 m thick typifies the low-accommodation setting with individual channel belts ranging from 0.75-1.5 m thick. Channels are highly amalgamated, are composed of fine to medium grained sands, and become heterolithic towards the top. Distributary channels, lake strata and smaller tie channels dominate the high accommodation floodplain settings. Distributary channels exhibit lateral accretion elements and are typically 1-3 stories, with individual channels being 0.4-1 m thick. Tie channels are 14-40 cm thick, very fine grained, and cross-cut floodplain lake strata. Thin, discontinuous, fine to very fine grain sand sheets connected to isolated tie channels represent pulses of deposition from channel propagation across the lake as a overbank sheet. Our data indicates a change in channel size, range of channel size, and channel geometry changes with an increase in accommodation state from low to high that is consistent with an upward change to a bifurcating system. This observation confirms the prediction of vertical change in geometry and size/size range of channels with change in accommodation state and supports the hypothesis that channels become bifurcated with sufficiently increased accommodation state. As well, the high accommodation condition is unpredictably well connected through tie channel propagation across the floodplain and distributary channel incision into these tie channel bodies and their overbank sands. Basin-fill models should thus consider the contingency that channel-belt reservoirs can change attributes with aggradation state and need not retain the sizes they possessed in the low-accommodation condition. Models for distributary channel networks argue that rapidly aggrading systems that are presumably high accommodation will convert from low-accommodation single channel to distributary systems as they encounter the new conditions. If distributary channel systems are also bifurcating systems, it follows that channel size should reduce from low-accommodation to high-accommodation settings. Poorly drained floodplains with a lower energy regime and relatively high water table should record very high accommodation conditions and should particularly be susceptible to developing bifurcating distributary systems. We tested this hypothesis by comparing channel dimensions and lithofacies in high- vs. low- accommodation deposits in the Pennsylvanian strata of the Princess and Conemaugh Formations of eastern Kentucky. A valley complex 5-8 m thick typifies the low-accommodation setting with individual channel belts ranging from 0.75-1.5 m thick. Channels are highly amalgamated, are composed of fine to medium grained sands, and become heterolithic towards the top. Distributary channels, lake strata and smaller tie channels dominate the high accommodation floodplain settings. Distributary channels exhibit lateral accretion elements and are typically 1-3 stories, with individual channels being 0.4-1 m thick. Tie channels are 14-40 cm thick, very fine grained, and cross-cut floodplain lake strata. Thin, discontinuous, fine to very fine grain sand sheets connected to isolated tie channels represent pulses of deposition from channel propagation across the lake as a overbank sheet. Our data indicates a change in channel size, range of channel size, and channel geometry changes with an increase in accommodation state from low to high that is consistent with an upward change to a bifurcating system. This observation confirms the prediction of vertical change in geometry and size/size range of channels with change in accommodation state and supports the hypothesis that channels become bifurcated with sufficiently increased accommodation state. As well, the high accommodation condition is unpredictably well connected through tie channel propagation across the floodplain and distributary channel incision into these tie channel bodies and their overbank sands. Basin-fill models should thus consider the contingency that channel-belt reservoirs can change attributes with aggradation state and need not retain the sizes they possessed in the low-accommodation condition. Panel_15328 Panel_15328 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Panel_14491 Panel_14491 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Samples of rock cuttings from an oil well drilled into the Upper Pennsylvanian Series in north central Kansas were analyzed to investigate metal concentrations and magnetic susceptibility variations. The rock samples were collected from a well drilled through reservoir intervals that produced heavy degraded oil as well as reservoir intervals that did not produce oil. Analyses were made from representative powdered samples of the rock cuttings obtained every 10 feet between 3150 feet and 3900 feet below the surface. The objective was to (1) characterize the chemostratigraphic variations in metal composition of the sampled interval (2) compare and correlate the metal composition to petrophysical properties analyzed from well logs and (3) compare magnetic susceptibility and Fe content from the oil-bearing and non-oil bearing intervals. The goal was to describe the chemostratigraphic succession of the study interval and to determine whether the degraded oil intervals correlate to elevated magnetic susceptibility and high Fe content. The rock cuttings were finely crushed and the powdered samples analyzed for high frequency magnetic susceptibility values using a laboratory Bartington MS2 susceptibility meter. Portions of the powdered samples were acid digested and analyzed for major and trace metals using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The major metals detected during analysis were Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, and others occurred as trace amounts. Results show that Ca is by far the most abundant element analyzed, representing up to 35% by weight in some samples. Na has the lowest composition with less than 1.0% weight in all samples. High Fe content correlate closely with elevated magnetic susceptibility values in the intervals that produced heavy degraded oil. High natural gamma ray values slightly correlate with high potassium content. Elevated magnetic susceptibility correlating with high Fe content in the oil bearing interval suggest that some iron minerals in the rocks may have formed during the metabolism of hydrocarbons by microbes, thus contributing to the heavy degraded oil in these intervals. Magnetic susceptibility associated with oil degradation has potential as a well site tool for the qualitative assessment of reservoir oil. Samples of rock cuttings from an oil well drilled into the Upper Pennsylvanian Series in north central Kansas were analyzed to investigate metal concentrations and magnetic susceptibility variations. The rock samples were collected from a well drilled through reservoir intervals that produced heavy degraded oil as well as reservoir intervals that did not produce oil. Analyses were made from representative powdered samples of the rock cuttings obtained every 10 feet between 3150 feet and 3900 feet below the surface. The objective was to (1) characterize the chemostratigraphic variations in metal composition of the sampled interval (2) compare and correlate the metal composition to petrophysical properties analyzed from well logs and (3) compare magnetic susceptibility and Fe content from the oil-bearing and non-oil bearing intervals. The goal was to describe the chemostratigraphic succession of the study interval and to determine whether the degraded oil intervals correlate to elevated magnetic susceptibility and high Fe content. The rock cuttings were finely crushed and the powdered samples analyzed for high frequency magnetic susceptibility values using a laboratory Bartington MS2 susceptibility meter. Portions of the powdered samples were acid digested and analyzed for major and trace metals using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The major metals detected during analysis were Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, and others occurred as trace amounts. Results show that Ca is by far the most abundant element analyzed, representing up to 35% by weight in some samples. Na has the lowest composition with less than 1.0% weight in all samples. High Fe content correlate closely with elevated magnetic susceptibility values in the intervals that produced heavy degraded oil. High natural gamma ray values slightly correlate with high potassium content. Elevated magnetic susceptibility correlating with high Fe content in the oil bearing interval suggest that some iron minerals in the rocks may have formed during the metabolism of hydrocarbons by microbes, thus contributing to the heavy degraded oil in these intervals. Magnetic susceptibility associated with oil degradation has potential as a well site tool for the qualitative assessment of reservoir oil. Panel_15547 Panel_15547 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

In order to investigate trace and rare earth element partitions in organic fractions of mudstones during the oil formation, the paper isolated organic fractions in mudstones, including insoluble organic fraction (kerogen), soluble organic fraction (extract) or expelled hydrocarbon (reservoir bitumen), and analyzed the isolated organic fractions and their corresponding whole rocks for trace and rare earth element compositions by ICP-MS. Based on the analysis of trace and rare earth element compositions in organic fractions of lacustrine mudstone from the lower Cretaceous in Aer Sag, Erlian Basin and marine mudstone from the lower Cambrian, as well as the upper Ediacaran reservoir bitumens in the Central Sichuan Basin, the following conclusions can be drawn. (a) REE pattern of mudstone extracts is similar to that of kerogens, indicating that REE in soluble hydrocarbons may originate directly from kerogens. During the oil generation of kerogen, middle rare earth elements (Sm-Ho), especially Eu, migrated from kerogen to extract more easily than the rest REEs. (b) REE and redox-sensitive trace elements (e.g., U, Mo and Ni) in mudstone kerogen are enriched relative to whole rock. During the oil generation of kerogen, transition metal elements (e.g., Mo, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) more easily released from kerogen to extract than the rest elements, especially V and Ni. (c) The enrichment and mobilization of trace elements in organic fractions of mudstones are closely related with their geochemical behaviors. For example, V occurs in not only organic phases of mudstone but also mineral phases. V porphyrin complex has the greater stability than Ni porphyrin complex and V can be bound to sulfur-containing compounds, resulting that V is much more enriched in marine oils than Ni. Compared with V, Ni is more concentrated in organic phases of mudstone. Under the absence of sulfur-containing compounds, Ni is more enriched in lacustrine oils relative to marine oils. (d) The similar trace and rare earth element patterns in reservoir bitumens indicate that trace and rare earth elements can be employed in oil-oil correlation. The enrichment and mobilization of trace elements in reservoir bitumens (e.g., Mo, U, V, Ni, Ba, etc) can provide potential information for predicting the distribution characteristics of trace elements in the expelled hydrocarbons of mudstones (e.g., crude oil, bitumen, etc) and fingerprinting of oil to source. In order to investigate trace and rare earth element partitions in organic fractions of mudstones during the oil formation, the paper isolated organic fractions in mudstones, including insoluble organic fraction (kerogen), soluble organic fraction (extract) or expelled hydrocarbon (reservoir bitumen), and analyzed the isolated organic fractions and their corresponding whole rocks for trace and rare earth element compositions by ICP-MS. Based on the analysis of trace and rare earth element compositions in organic fractions of lacustrine mudstone from the lower Cretaceous in Aer Sag, Erlian Basin and marine mudstone from the lower Cambrian, as well as the upper Ediacaran reservoir bitumens in the Central Sichuan Basin, the following conclusions can be drawn. (a) REE pattern of mudstone extracts is similar to that of kerogens, indicating that REE in soluble hydrocarbons may originate directly from kerogens. During the oil generation of kerogen, middle rare earth elements (Sm-Ho), especially Eu, migrated from kerogen to extract more easily than the rest REEs. (b) REE and redox-sensitive trace elements (e.g., U, Mo and Ni) in mudstone kerogen are enriched relative to whole rock. During the oil generation of kerogen, transition metal elements (e.g., Mo, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) more easily released from kerogen to extract than the rest elements, especially V and Ni. (c) The enrichment and mobilization of trace elements in organic fractions of mudstones are closely related with their geochemical behaviors. For example, V occurs in not only organic phases of mudstone but also mineral phases. V porphyrin complex has the greater stability than Ni porphyrin complex and V can be bound to sulfur-containing compounds, resulting that V is much more enriched in marine oils than Ni. Compared with V, Ni is more concentrated in organic phases of mudstone. Under the absence of sulfur-containing compounds, Ni is more enriched in lacustrine oils relative to marine oils. (d) The similar trace and rare earth element patterns in reservoir bitumens indicate that trace and rare earth elements can be employed in oil-oil correlation. The enrichment and mobilization of trace elements in reservoir bitumens (e.g., Mo, U, V, Ni, Ba, etc) can provide potential information for predicting the distribution characteristics of trace elements in the expelled hydrocarbons of mudstones (e.g., crude oil, bitumen, etc) and fingerprinting of oil to source. Panel_15550 Panel_15550 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The results of the present oil and gas exploration show that the Zhu I Depression mainly developed two sets of lacustrine facies source rocks: the Eocene Wenchang Formation and the Enping Formation. This paper analyzes in depth the depositional setting of the two sets of source rocks in the Zhu I Depression. Starting with the genetic mechanism of source rocks, the paper explores the depositional setting which is favorable for the development of high-quality source rocks. Through this approach, we obtained new ideas on the evaluation of source rocks in the Pearl River Mouth Basin of the South China Sea. This paper describes the provenance analysis of two sets of source rocks from the Wenchang and Enping Formations in the Zhu I Depression. By using drilling, logging, and core data in parallel, we find that there is a good relation between the spatiotemporal coupling of the volcanic ash and tephra that commonly occurs in the Wenchang Formation stratum and the high-quality source rocks of the Wenchang Formation. Our geochemical analyses reveal that the ash-rich high-quality source rocks of the Wenchang Formation are rich in Fe by 12% more than those of the Enping Formation. Iron plays an important role in the growth and propagation of planktonic algae. Other elements that can cause water eutrophication show a similar distribution. These results demonstrate that volcanic activity brought a large amount of Fe into the lake basin via volcanic ash and tephra, caused eutrophication of water, and led to marine algal blooms and vigorous primary productivity. This, in turn, provided high-quality source rocks in the Wenchang Formation with abundant organic matter. This paper establishes the genetic relation between the high-quality source rocks, the synchronous or previous volcanic activity, and the relevant eutrophication of the water system. The volcanic activity provided the material basis for the development high-quality source rocks. Studying volcanic activity and detecting volcanic source content is an important means for evaluating the source rocks when there are only a few wells, such as in the Pearl River Mouth Basin. The results of the present oil and gas exploration show that the Zhu I Depression mainly developed two sets of lacustrine facies source rocks: the Eocene Wenchang Formation and the Enping Formation. This paper analyzes in depth the depositional setting of the two sets of source rocks in the Zhu I Depression. Starting with the genetic mechanism of source rocks, the paper explores the depositional setting which is favorable for the development of high-quality source rocks. Through this approach, we obtained new ideas on the evaluation of source rocks in the Pearl River Mouth Basin of the South China Sea. This paper describes the provenance analysis of two sets of source rocks from the Wenchang and Enping Formations in the Zhu I Depression. By using drilling, logging, and core data in parallel, we find that there is a good relation between the spatiotemporal coupling of the volcanic ash and tephra that commonly occurs in the Wenchang Formation stratum and the high-quality source rocks of the Wenchang Formation. Our geochemical analyses reveal that the ash-rich high-quality source rocks of the Wenchang Formation are rich in Fe by 12% more than those of the Enping Formation. Iron plays an important role in the growth and propagation of planktonic algae. Other elements that can cause water eutrophication show a similar distribution. These results demonstrate that volcanic activity brought a large amount of Fe into the lake basin via volcanic ash and tephra, caused eutrophication of water, and led to marine algal blooms and vigorous primary productivity. This, in turn, provided high-quality source rocks in the Wenchang Formation with abundant organic matter. This paper establishes the genetic relation between the high-quality source rocks, the synchronous or previous volcanic activity, and the relevant eutrophication of the water system. The volcanic activity provided the material basis for the development high-quality source rocks. Studying volcanic activity and detecting volcanic source content is an important means for evaluating the source rocks when there are only a few wells, such as in the Pearl River Mouth Basin. Panel_15548 Panel_15548 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

This study attempts to develop a method to precisely analyze multiple trace metal elements in crude oils by using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry/-mass spectrometry (ICP-OES/ICP-MS). To eliminate spectral and polyatomic interferences caused by complex organic matrix of crude oils, oil samples were decomposed into aqueous solutions. We have studied two sample preparation techniques: combustion under high pressure and wet digestion under high pressure and temperature. A 100 ppm (wt./wt.) multi-element organo-metallic standard from Conostan, extended S21, was applied as the test standard in combustion and acid digestion. The results of combustion by ICP-OES have shown that the best recovery is about 85% for Na. For the results of wet digestion by ICP-OES, the recoveries of Al, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Sb, Sn, and V are better than 95%, and Pb, Ti, and Zn are better than 93%. The developed method was applied to test National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 8505 for 47 trace elements aiming to develop it into a potential crude oil standard for multiple metal elements. Accurate concentrations of 46 elements together with V in NIST 8505 have been constrained, among them, Al, Ba, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Ni, and Sr have been tested by both ICP-OES/ICP-MS which showed a good agreement within analytical error range. 26 crude oil samples from Permian Basin and Fort Worth Basin, Texas, U.S., Angola, Timan Pechora Basin in Russia, and Central Sumatra Basin in Indonesia, were also tested by the developed working method for 47 trace elements. Our results indicated that the multiple trace metal contents in crude oils can be applied as a powerful tool to both upstream and downstream investigations and refining processes in the petroleum industry. This study attempts to develop a method to precisely analyze multiple trace metal elements in crude oils by using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry/-mass spectrometry (ICP-OES/ICP-MS). To eliminate spectral and polyatomic interferences caused by complex organic matrix of crude oils, oil samples were decomposed into aqueous solutions. We have studied two sample preparation techniques: combustion under high pressure and wet digestion under high pressure and temperature. A 100 ppm (wt./wt.) multi-element organo-metallic standard from Conostan, extended S21, was applied as the test standard in combustion and acid digestion. The results of combustion by ICP-OES have shown that the best recovery is about 85% for Na. For the results of wet digestion by ICP-OES, the recoveries of Al, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Sb, Sn, and V are better than 95%, and Pb, Ti, and Zn are better than 93%. The developed method was applied to test National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 8505 for 47 trace elements aiming to develop it into a potential crude oil standard for multiple metal elements. Accurate concentrations of 46 elements together with V in NIST 8505 have been constrained, among them, Al, Ba, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Ni, and Sr have been tested by both ICP-OES/ICP-MS which showed a good agreement within analytical error range. 26 crude oil samples from Permian Basin and Fort Worth Basin, Texas, U.S., Angola, Timan Pechora Basin in Russia, and Central Sumatra Basin in Indonesia, were also tested by the developed working method for 47 trace elements. Our results indicated that the multiple trace metal contents in crude oils can be applied as a powerful tool to both upstream and downstream investigations and refining processes in the petroleum industry. Panel_15549 Panel_15549 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Black shales are known widely for their ability to produce hydrocarbons from their rich organic makeup. This high TOC (total organic carbon) makeup brings a large amount of radioactive elements such as Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), and Potassium-40 (40K). As these radioactive elements decay, they all release energy in the form of gamma rays. The energy supplied from the gamma radiation can lead to radiolysis in organic materials, as shown with oleic acid in previous experiments (Howton et. al 1966). By breaking specific bonds with the use of radiation, it can be said that radioactive decay promotes mechanics that lead to the production of hydrocarbons. This was further investigated by using gamma rays produced by a cesium-137 core to break molecular bonds in oil samples also containing brine and clay minerals in the systems. By using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), the composition of the oil before and after irradiation was determined and the changes of the crude oil compositions were evaluated. The FTIR results signify that there are multiple changes in the oil samples. The samples containing both brine and clay minerals seem to have formed both a lighter oil fraction along with a heavier, more viscous oil fraction. The samples containing only brine and crude oil seem to have only formed a heavier, more viscous oil fraction based on an increase in the CH2 groups along with a decrease in CH3 groups. This increase in CH2 groups and decrease in CH3 groups would also be accompanied with the production of H2(g). When introduced to gamma radiation, this additional H2(g) in combination with H2(g) already present in source rocks may serve as a source of kinetic energy in these source rocks. The collision of the gases with various organic bonds may also help facilitate the generation of hydrocarbons. Organic material from the Woodford Shale was also irradiated with various amounts of gamma radiation then evaluated using a Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Differences in the control and irradiated samples of kerogens were then determined. These experiments may lead to answers about radiogenic maturation processes in hydrocarbons. Black shales are known widely for their ability to produce hydrocarbons from their rich organic makeup. This high TOC (total organic carbon) makeup brings a large amount of radioactive elements such as Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), and Potassium-40 (40K). As these radioactive elements decay, they all release energy in the form of gamma rays. The energy supplied from the gamma radiation can lead to radiolysis in organic materials, as shown with oleic acid in previous experiments (Howton et. al 1966). By breaking specific bonds with the use of radiation, it can be said that radioactive decay promotes mechanics that lead to the production of hydrocarbons. This was further investigated by using gamma rays produced by a cesium-137 core to break molecular bonds in oil samples also containing brine and clay minerals in the systems. By using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), the composition of the oil before and after irradiation was determined and the changes of the crude oil compositions were evaluated. The FTIR results signify that there are multiple changes in the oil samples. The samples containing both brine and clay minerals seem to have formed both a lighter oil fraction along with a heavier, more viscous oil fraction. The samples containing only brine and crude oil seem to have only formed a heavier, more viscous oil fraction based on an increase in the CH2 groups along with a decrease in CH3 groups. This increase in CH2 groups and decrease in CH3 groups would also be accompanied with the production of H2(g). When introduced to gamma radiation, this additional H2(g) in combination with H2(g) already present in source rocks may serve as a source of kinetic energy in these source rocks. The collision of the gases with various organic bonds may also help facilitate the generation of hydrocarbons. Organic material from the Woodford Shale was also irradiated with various amounts of gamma radiation then evaluated using a Rock-Eval pyrolysis. Differences in the control and irradiated samples of kerogens were then determined. These experiments may lead to answers about radiogenic maturation processes in hydrocarbons. Panel_15546 Panel_15546 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

A geochemical investigation was carried out to have an understanding of interactions between fluid, mineral, and organic material in hydrocarbon generating source beds. Brines collected from unconventional shales allow the study of fluids before any changes in composition that may occur during secondary migration to reservoir rocks or post migration processes. Brines are typically found to be rich in elements such as calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr), while being poor in potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), and magnesium (Mg). K/Rb ratios of the Woodford brine samples were found to be in the range of 490-600. These ratios are higher than average silicate materials, including clay minerals that are abundantly present in the Woodford. These relatively higher ratios suggest that organic matter could be an influence. Rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns were characterized by heavy rare earth element (HREE) enrichment, superimposed on it middle rare earth element (MREE) enrichment and gadolinium (Ga) and cerium (Ce) positive anomalies and thulium (Tm) negative anomalies. The general trend with HREE is potentially an indication of the complexation of the rare earth elements with carboxylic anions derived from organic materials present in the hydrocarbon source shale bed. The MREE enrichment may be attributed to phosphate complexation linked to the same organic materials. The Ce positive anomalies may be reflecting dissolution of Fe-Mn oxides. The Gd anomalies have been known in many organic materials with an influence of enzyme activity. Plant enzyme activity has also been also suspected for Tm anomalies. Thus the REE in the brines have been carrying signatures of organic sources, potentially they are carrying records of events during oil generation. A geochemical investigation was carried out to have an understanding of interactions between fluid, mineral, and organic material in hydrocarbon generating source beds. Brines collected from unconventional shales allow the study of fluids before any changes in composition that may occur during secondary migration to reservoir rocks or post migration processes. Brines are typically found to be rich in elements such as calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr), while being poor in potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), and magnesium (Mg). K/Rb ratios of the Woodford brine samples were found to be in the range of 490-600. These ratios are higher than average silicate materials, including clay minerals that are abundantly present in the Woodford. These relatively higher ratios suggest that organic matter could be an influence. Rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns were characterized by heavy rare earth element (HREE) enrichment, superimposed on it middle rare earth element (MREE) enrichment and gadolinium (Ga) and cerium (Ce) positive anomalies and thulium (Tm) negative anomalies. The general trend with HREE is potentially an indication of the complexation of the rare earth elements with carboxylic anions derived from organic materials present in the hydrocarbon source shale bed. The MREE enrichment may be attributed to phosphate complexation linked to the same organic materials. The Ce positive anomalies may be reflecting dissolution of Fe-Mn oxides. The Gd anomalies have been known in many organic materials with an influence of enzyme activity. Plant enzyme activity has also been also suspected for Tm anomalies. Thus the REE in the brines have been carrying signatures of organic sources, potentially they are carrying records of events during oil generation. Panel_15544 Panel_15544 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The rise of unconventional resources has fostered and necessitated a "back-to-the-rocks" approach to reservoir analysis. This group of presentations will showcase insights and innovations involving contemporary core analysis, and participants will have the opportunity to see the "raw data." Not only will presenters discuss core-based studies, but you will also view core samples used in those studies. Presentations will cover a range of topics including natural fractures, geochemistry and chemostratigraphy, ichnology and sedimentology, tight oil plays, analysis pores and pore systems.

The rise of unconventional resources has fostered and necessitated a "back-to-the-rocks" approach to reservoir analysis. This group of presentations will showcase insights and innovations involving contemporary core analysis, and participants will have the opportunity to see the "raw data." Not only will presenters discuss core-based studies, but you will also view core samples used in those studies. Presentations will cover a range of topics including natural fractures, geochemistry and chemostratigraphy, ichnology and sedimentology, tight oil plays, analysis pores and pore systems.

Panel_14416 Panel_14416 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Cores allow us to measure physical properties (such as porosity and permeability), and to associate such measurements to observed textures and contextual (facies) frameworks. It is widely understood how to project that core information into the spatial domain, via geomodelling that creates 3D distributions of geobodies and their properties. After we have determined the paragenetic sequence (i.e. diagenetic evolution) of the cores, we can project core-derived properties into the dimension of time, as described below. If the current spatial arrangement is also projected into a time sequence (restoring the shape changes, for example), then the approach described here provides the property information that adds value to those geometric restorations. This time-projection of core observations is possible because: (1) rock textures record the geohistory processes (e.g. diagenetic changes and past mechanical responses) that have operated on that rock; and (2) the textures, and their associated 3D pore-space architecture, determine the properties. Using concepts about how these processes alter textures, core observations and measured properties can be extended into the time domain, in both backward and forward directions. The backward direction is addressed by sequential removal of diagenetic features (i.e. diagenetic back-stripping sensu van der Land et al. 2013), or deformation effects. These textural “restorations” can be accomplished in 2D (observed in thin section, or via SEM & auto-determination minerals/orientations), followed by creating digital rock models, which allow property calculations for each of the past states. The methods can also operate directly on 3D digital rock models. (The digital rock methodology has been documented elsewhere, but key aspects will be reviewed in this paper.) The main challenge for this approach is how to take account of the textural consequences of compaction/consolidation, which results in grain rearrangement and thus alterations of the pore space. Forward projection can be literal or figurative. If literal, this might address texture and property changes resulting from reservoir operations (e.g. scale deposition, consolidation from pressure depletion, or even activities such as fracturing). Figurative forward models can estimate how the equivalent rock would have changed in, say, a deeper and un-sampled location, or in a location where deformation occurred (but was not sampled), such as in a fault zone. Cores allow us to measure physical properties (such as porosity and permeability), and to associate such measurements to observed textures and contextual (facies) frameworks. It is widely understood how to project that core information into the spatial domain, via geomodelling that creates 3D distributions of geobodies and their properties. After we have determined the paragenetic sequence (i.e. diagenetic evolution) of the cores, we can project core-derived properties into the dimension of time, as described below. If the current spatial arrangement is also projected into a time sequence (restoring the shape changes, for example), then the approach described here provides the property information that adds value to those geometric restorations. This time-projection of core observations is possible because: (1) rock textures record the geohistory processes (e.g. diagenetic changes and past mechanical responses) that have operated on that rock; and (2) the textures, and their associated 3D pore-space architecture, determine the properties. Using concepts about how these processes alter textures, core observations and measured properties can be extended into the time domain, in both backward and forward directions. The backward direction is addressed by sequential removal of diagenetic features (i.e. diagenetic back-stripping sensu van der Land et al. 2013), or deformation effects. These textural “restorations” can be accomplished in 2D (observed in thin section, or via SEM & auto-determination minerals/orientations), followed by creating digital rock models, which allow property calculations for each of the past states. The methods can also operate directly on 3D digital rock models. (The digital rock methodology has been documented elsewhere, but key aspects will be reviewed in this paper.) The main challenge for this approach is how to take account of the textural consequences of compaction/consolidation, which results in grain rearrangement and thus alterations of the pore space. Forward projection can be literal or figurative. If literal, this might address texture and property changes resulting from reservoir operations (e.g. scale deposition, consolidation from pressure depletion, or even activities such as fracturing). Figurative forward models can estimate how the equivalent rock would have changed in, say, a deeper and un-sampled location, or in a location where deformation occurred (but was not sampled), such as in a fault zone. Panel_14819 Panel_14819 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The late Mississippian Heath Formation is the primary target of an emerging tight oil play. The organic-rich beds of the Heath are well known as the primary oil source rocks for more than 100 MMBO of oil produced from the Tyler Sandstone and other reservoirs in central Montana, however, recent geological work, coring, and horizontal drilling has exposed the Heath Formation as an unconventional tight oil reservoir sourced by interbedded organic-rich shales and carbonates. Parts of two cores, the Cirque Rock Happy #33-3H and the Cirque Lucky Strike #10-4H, provide examples of source and reservoir rocks in the 450 foot-thick Heath. Reservoirs in the Heath range from dolomite to limestone to calcareous shale. Larger pores are most common in intertidal to supratidal dolomites with up to 18 percent porosity; fractures and microporosity are present in all lithologies. The best reservoirs are developed in the Heath Limestone interval of the Heath. The stratigraphically lowest source rock interval in the Heath is informally called the Van Dusen zone. It contains a mixture of coals and high-TOC calcareous mudstones; oils generated by these sources contain abundant terrestrial biomarkers. The coals in the lower parts of the Heath indicate a warm, humid climate. The middle source interval in the Heath is the Cox Ranch Oil Shale which contains interbedded dark brown to black calcareous mudstones with TOC up to 26 wt%. The Heath Limestone is above the Cox Ranch and includes source beds with TOC up to 11 wt%. Anhydrites, intertidal to supratidal dolomites, and the presence of gammacerane in the generated oils indicate an arid climate and hypersaline waters. The Cirque Rock Happy #33-3H core is located in the southern part of the Big Snowy Trough, has two dolomite intervals, and is in the peak oil thermal maturity window (Tmax 440 degrees C). The corresponding horizontal well was drilled in a dolomite in the lower part of the Heath Limestone, had an IP of 271 Bopd, and produced 36 degree API gravity oil. The Cirque Lucky Strike #10-4H core is in the northern part of the Big Snowy Trough, is closer to the lowstand basin, and has thinner dolomite pay development. This well is near the onset of oil generation (Tmax 431 degrees C); the corresponding horizontal well was drilled in dolomites of the lower Heath Limestone, had an IP of 104 Bopd, and produced 29 degree API gravity oil. The late Mississippian Heath Formation is the primary target of an emerging tight oil play. The organic-rich beds of the Heath are well known as the primary oil source rocks for more than 100 MMBO of oil produced from the Tyler Sandstone and other reservoirs in central Montana, however, recent geological work, coring, and horizontal drilling has exposed the Heath Formation as an unconventional tight oil reservoir sourced by interbedded organic-rich shales and carbonates. Parts of two cores, the Cirque Rock Happy #33-3H and the Cirque Lucky Strike #10-4H, provide examples of source and reservoir rocks in the 450 foot-thick Heath. Reservoirs in the Heath range from dolomite to limestone to calcareous shale. Larger pores are most common in intertidal to supratidal dolomites with up to 18 percent porosity; fractures and microporosity are present in all lithologies. The best reservoirs are developed in the Heath Limestone interval of the Heath. The stratigraphically lowest source rock interval in the Heath is informally called the Van Dusen zone. It contains a mixture of coals and high-TOC calcareous mudstones; oils generated by these sources contain abundant terrestrial biomarkers. The coals in the lower parts of the Heath indicate a warm, humid climate. The middle source interval in the Heath is the Cox Ranch Oil Shale which contains interbedded dark brown to black calcareous mudstones with TOC up to 26 wt%. The Heath Limestone is above the Cox Ranch and includes source beds with TOC up to 11 wt%. Anhydrites, intertidal to supratidal dolomites, and the presence of gammacerane in the generated oils indicate an arid climate and hypersaline waters. The Cirque Rock Happy #33-3H core is located in the southern part of the Big Snowy Trough, has two dolomite intervals, and is in the peak oil thermal maturity window (Tmax 440 degrees C). The corresponding horizontal well was drilled in a dolomite in the lower part of the Heath Limestone, had an IP of 271 Bopd, and produced 36 degree API gravity oil. The Cirque Lucky Strike #10-4H core is in the northern part of the Big Snowy Trough, is closer to the lowstand basin, and has thinner dolomite pay development. This well is near the onset of oil generation (Tmax 431 degrees C); the corresponding horizontal well was drilled in dolomites of the lower Heath Limestone, had an IP of 104 Bopd, and produced 29 degree API gravity oil. Panel_14813 Panel_14813 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Recent advances in pore-scale imaging and modeling have allowed these techniques to be more commonly used to test hypothesis about petroleum reservoir rocks. The current challenge of this so-called “digital core analysis” is to integrate data with different resolutions, from nanometer in microscopy images to centimeter or larger in well logs. High-resolution x-ray computed micro-tomography (CT) is one route to build accurate digital pore network models. Three-dimensional (3-D) printing is a novel technique that transforms digital pore models into tangible rock samples, which are analyzed using traditional laboratory methods and compared to petrophysical measurements of conventional core analysis. This study uses a combination of CT and petrography data from Fontainebleau sandstone samples and 3-D printing to characterize heterogeneity, pore classes, and porosity types at different scales. CT data of sandstone samples represent cubes with three millimeters on each side. Conventional core analysis for Fontainebleau sandstone gives porosities of 13-28%, whereas pore sizes range from 3 to 100 microns. The mean grain size of Fontainebleau sandstone is 250 microns. The resolution of CT imaging varies from 5 to 40 microns; the resolution of 3-D printing used in the study varies from 2.5 to 300 microns. Increasing the scale of the pore systems ten-fold (e.g., from 5 micron in reality to 50 microns in a 3-D printed model) helps better determine porosity-permeability relationships because connectivity of small pores that is not observed at the original scale becomes distinguishable after up-scaling. Moreover, the digitally up-scaled pore network is quantitatively analyzed taking into account the up-scaling factor that influences changes in properties like fluid pressure, flow velocity, and viscosity. Preliminary results show that porosity, pore size distribution, and permeability can be measured on 3-D printed copies of Fontainebleau sandstone. Mercury injection tests conducted on replicated samples manufactured from silica and polymer powders reveal discrepancies in pore network replication that can be eliminated in the course of digital modeling. CT images of clean and brine-impregnated 3-D printed models help comparing contact angles and wettability with original samples and deriving conclusions on accuracy of pore geometry and topology in 3-D printing materials used for manufacturing. Recent advances in pore-scale imaging and modeling have allowed these techniques to be more commonly used to test hypothesis about petroleum reservoir rocks. The current challenge of this so-called “digital core analysis” is to integrate data with different resolutions, from nanometer in microscopy images to centimeter or larger in well logs. High-resolution x-ray computed micro-tomography (CT) is one route to build accurate digital pore network models. Three-dimensional (3-D) printing is a novel technique that transforms digital pore models into tangible rock samples, which are analyzed using traditional laboratory methods and compared to petrophysical measurements of conventional core analysis. This study uses a combination of CT and petrography data from Fontainebleau sandstone samples and 3-D printing to characterize heterogeneity, pore classes, and porosity types at different scales. CT data of sandstone samples represent cubes with three millimeters on each side. Conventional core analysis for Fontainebleau sandstone gives porosities of 13-28%, whereas pore sizes range from 3 to 100 microns. The mean grain size of Fontainebleau sandstone is 250 microns. The resolution of CT imaging varies from 5 to 40 microns; the resolution of 3-D printing used in the study varies from 2.5 to 300 microns. Increasing the scale of the pore systems ten-fold (e.g., from 5 micron in reality to 50 microns in a 3-D printed model) helps better determine porosity-permeability relationships because connectivity of small pores that is not observed at the original scale becomes distinguishable after up-scaling. Moreover, the digitally up-scaled pore network is quantitatively analyzed taking into account the up-scaling factor that influences changes in properties like fluid pressure, flow velocity, and viscosity. Preliminary results show that porosity, pore size distribution, and permeability can be measured on 3-D printed copies of Fontainebleau sandstone. Mercury injection tests conducted on replicated samples manufactured from silica and polymer powders reveal discrepancies in pore network replication that can be eliminated in the course of digital modeling. CT images of clean and brine-impregnated 3-D printed models help comparing contact angles and wettability with original samples and deriving conclusions on accuracy of pore geometry and topology in 3-D printing materials used for manufacturing. Panel_14821 Panel_14821 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Woodford Shale provides an opportunity to test recent advances in handheld XRF (HHXRF) technology to develop and refine sequence stratigraphic frameworks by comparing chemostratigraphic profiles directly to gamma ray logs obtained from the same locations. Three cores from Lincoln, Pottawatomie, and Pontotoc Counties in Oklahoma and two outcrops at the Hunton Anticline Quarry (HAQ) in Murray County, OK represent both proximal and distal environments of the Woodford Shale. Clean surfaces at each area are scanned at no greater than one foot intervals using HHXRF to determine the elemental profiles. At the same resolution, a gamma ray profile is scanned using a GR scintillator or core spectral gamma ray. The lithologic description, gamma ray profile, and elemental profiles are then used to develop the sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Stratigraphic successions that are correlatively ambiguous based on GR profiles alone are able to be properly correlated by utilizing surfaces that are recognized within chemostratigraphic profiles. Certain elements act as proxies for local depositional and environmental conditions during sedimentation. The principal elements used in this study are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), silicon (Si), Calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), phosphorous (P), aluminum (Al), potassium (K), molybdenum (Mo), and vanadium (V). Ti and Zr are associated with continentally derived sediment. Ca and Sr are associated with carbonate accumulation. Al and K are associated with feldspars and clays. Mo and V can be used as an indication of redox conditions. Si is found in biogenic quartz, detrital quartz, feldspars, and clays. As such, it is useful to evaluate Si as a ratio between Si/Al. When evaluated in conjunction with the Ti and Zr concentrations, the Si/Al ratio provides a rough approximation for the amount of biogenic quartz present within a horizon. At several horizons in the Woodford the Si/Al value spikes, these spikes are interpreted as algal blooms at these locations. Immediately above these blooms, there is typically a sudden peak in carbonate proxies, interpreted as incipient hard-ground formation. When found together, these horizons are interpreted as surfaces of non-deposition that can be used for building a correlative stratigraphic framework. These chemostratigraphic successions are capable of resolving high frequency cyclicity that can refine a sequence stratigraphic framework. The Woodford Shale provides an opportunity to test recent advances in handheld XRF (HHXRF) technology to develop and refine sequence stratigraphic frameworks by comparing chemostratigraphic profiles directly to gamma ray logs obtained from the same locations. Three cores from Lincoln, Pottawatomie, and Pontotoc Counties in Oklahoma and two outcrops at the Hunton Anticline Quarry (HAQ) in Murray County, OK represent both proximal and distal environments of the Woodford Shale. Clean surfaces at each area are scanned at no greater than one foot intervals using HHXRF to determine the elemental profiles. At the same resolution, a gamma ray profile is scanned using a GR scintillator or core spectral gamma ray. The lithologic description, gamma ray profile, and elemental profiles are then used to develop the sequence stratigraphic interpretation. Stratigraphic successions that are correlatively ambiguous based on GR profiles alone are able to be properly correlated by utilizing surfaces that are recognized within chemostratigraphic profiles. Certain elements act as proxies for local depositional and environmental conditions during sedimentation. The principal elements used in this study are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), silicon (Si), Calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), phosphorous (P), aluminum (Al), potassium (K), molybdenum (Mo), and vanadium (V). Ti and Zr are associated with continentally derived sediment. Ca and Sr are associated with carbonate accumulation. Al and K are associated with feldspars and clays. Mo and V can be used as an indication of redox conditions. Si is found in biogenic quartz, detrital quartz, feldspars, and clays. As such, it is useful to evaluate Si as a ratio between Si/Al. When evaluated in conjunction with the Ti and Zr concentrations, the Si/Al ratio provides a rough approximation for the amount of biogenic quartz present within a horizon. At several horizons in the Woodford the Si/Al value spikes, these spikes are interpreted as algal blooms at these locations. Immediately above these blooms, there is typically a sudden peak in carbonate proxies, interpreted as incipient hard-ground formation. When found together, these horizons are interpreted as surfaces of non-deposition that can be used for building a correlative stratigraphic framework. These chemostratigraphic successions are capable of resolving high frequency cyclicity that can refine a sequence stratigraphic framework. Panel_14818 Panel_14818 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Fifty examples of natural and drilling-induced fractures in core, plus coring-related artifacts, are used to illustrate methods for differentiating fracture types in cores, techniques for maximizing the amount of fracture data obtained from cores, and concepts for extrapolating laterally to develop conceptual and numerical fracture-network models for a reservoir. Cores contain a wealth of information on fractures and stresses, but they comprise such a small sampling of a reservoir that fracture data collection must be optimized by knowledgeable and detailed core analysis. The samples illustrate natural fracture characteristics such as heights, spacings, terminations, widths, apertures, and orientations relative to each other and to the in situ stresses. Examples of drilling-induced fractures highlight their diagnostic characteristics and demonstrate the utility and wide variety of petal and centerline fractures. The samples also illustrate the differences between natural and induced fractures, and the sometimes subtle differences between natural shear and natural extension fractures. Coring-related artifacts such as bit impressions at core tops, core-bottom stumps, spinoffs, spiraling scribe lines, and fractures created by scribe knives provide insights into the coring process and depth-correlation points to orientation surveys and downhole logs. This collection of fractures and artifacts in cores is the starting point for an Atlas of Induced and Natural Fractures in Core. Fifty examples of natural and drilling-induced fractures in core, plus coring-related artifacts, are used to illustrate methods for differentiating fracture types in cores, techniques for maximizing the amount of fracture data obtained from cores, and concepts for extrapolating laterally to develop conceptual and numerical fracture-network models for a reservoir. Cores contain a wealth of information on fractures and stresses, but they comprise such a small sampling of a reservoir that fracture data collection must be optimized by knowledgeable and detailed core analysis. The samples illustrate natural fracture characteristics such as heights, spacings, terminations, widths, apertures, and orientations relative to each other and to the in situ stresses. Examples of drilling-induced fractures highlight their diagnostic characteristics and demonstrate the utility and wide variety of petal and centerline fractures. The samples also illustrate the differences between natural and induced fractures, and the sometimes subtle differences between natural shear and natural extension fractures. Coring-related artifacts such as bit impressions at core tops, core-bottom stumps, spinoffs, spiraling scribe lines, and fractures created by scribe knives provide insights into the coring process and depth-correlation points to orientation surveys and downhole logs. This collection of fractures and artifacts in cores is the starting point for an Atlas of Induced and Natural Fractures in Core. Panel_14823 Panel_14823 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Analyzing ichnofauna during core description is a standard tool for evaluation of paleoenvironmental conditions within petroleum systems. Interest in fine-grained rock has re-energized the debate regarding shallow water vs. deep water deposition of organic-rich mudstone. Ichnofacies assemblages are central to the debate because Zoophycos is usually considered indicative of deep-marine and oxygen-poor environments. In this study of Carboniferous cyclothems, core samples show a pattern of coal directly disturbed by low-diversity Zoophycos-dominated strata. This pattern recurs thirteen times over 100 feet of strata. The coal formed during lowstand, whereas the Zoophycos-bearing strata mark the onset of transgression during which shallow, brackish-water bays developed over the coal beds. A single occurrence of Zoophycos-disturbed coal might represent the onset of a regional-scale transgression; however, the repetition of this association indicates frequent marine inundation of peat bogs. Most likely, Zoophycos records infaunal pioneers in low-oxygen, low-energy environments with highly variable salinity. This interpretation is consistent with a body of paleontological literature that cites Zoophycos as an indicator of low-oxygen, brackish-water, and similarly stressed environmental settings. However, outside the paleontological literature, Zoophycos is commonly cited as confirmation of a deep-water marine setting. This work further challenges the belief that Zoophycos is a reliable indicator of deep-water environments. When Zoophycos is part of a diverse ichnofauna, it probably has little environmental or no bathymetric significance. When part of a low-diversity assemblage it probably records a stressed environment where the Zoophycos trace maker was better adapted to the environment than other organisms. Analyzing ichnofauna during core description is a standard tool for evaluation of paleoenvironmental conditions within petroleum systems. Interest in fine-grained rock has re-energized the debate regarding shallow water vs. deep water deposition of organic-rich mudstone. Ichnofacies assemblages are central to the debate because Zoophycos is usually considered indicative of deep-marine and oxygen-poor environments. In this study of Carboniferous cyclothems, core samples show a pattern of coal directly disturbed by low-diversity Zoophycos-dominated strata. This pattern recurs thirteen times over 100 feet of strata. The coal formed during lowstand, whereas the Zoophycos-bearing strata mark the onset of transgression during which shallow, brackish-water bays developed over the coal beds. A single occurrence of Zoophycos-disturbed coal might represent the onset of a regional-scale transgression; however, the repetition of this association indicates frequent marine inundation of peat bogs. Most likely, Zoophycos records infaunal pioneers in low-oxygen, low-energy environments with highly variable salinity. This interpretation is consistent with a body of paleontological literature that cites Zoophycos as an indicator of low-oxygen, brackish-water, and similarly stressed environmental settings. However, outside the paleontological literature, Zoophycos is commonly cited as confirmation of a deep-water marine setting. This work further challenges the belief that Zoophycos is a reliable indicator of deep-water environments. When Zoophycos is part of a diverse ichnofauna, it probably has little environmental or no bathymetric significance. When part of a low-diversity assemblage it probably records a stressed environment where the Zoophycos trace maker was better adapted to the environment than other organisms. Panel_14814 Panel_14814 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

We exhibit 160’ of Niobrara core from the Whiting Razor 25-2514, Weld County, Colorado. The exhibited interval covers the productive Niobrara A chalk, the Niobrara A marl, the productive upper and lower Niobrara B chalk benches and most of the Niobrara B marl. Higher frequency cyclicity and lithologic variation is demonstrated within the chalks due to abundant, thin, black, marly interbeds up to 3” thick; conversely, the A and B marl intervals contain many, thinner, non-amalgamated chalk interbeds. The chalk interbeds within the marls have suppressed UV hydrocarbon fluorescence, probably due to UV quenching from associated elevated asphaltene content. All intervals, including the overlying Sharon Springs Member of the Pierre Shale have bentonites which range from 4” thick in the Sharon Springs to <1/8” thick within the Niobrara Marls. All the bentonites fall below wireline log resolution (with the exception of resistivity imaging), however, we emphasize their distribution with UV photos that highlight each and every bentonite based on bright UV fluorescence. Rock mechanical properties such as Poisson’s Ratio and Young’s Modulus calculated from dipole sonic logs are largely ignorant of the presence of these abundant, thin, yet very weak, ductile bentonites. Hydraulic Stimulation modeling based on wireline log properties therefore grossly underestimates the mechanical heterogeneity of the Niobrara. Furthermore, the bentonites are too thin and weak to be plugged for static rock mechanics evaluations. To address these limitations, we made extensive usage of the Equotip™ “Bambino” micro-rebound hammer to measure closely spaced Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) at least every 6” while also covering each and every one of the hundreds of thin bentonites. The UCS from the micro-rebound hammer is compared not only with wireline dipole sonic based parameters, but also with UCS from TerraTek’s “Scratch Test”. The Equotip-derived UCS curve, even when running-average-smoothed, demonstrates much greater UCS dynamic range, capturing the very weak bentonite interbeds. Not only do the bentonite (and marl) interbeds divide the chalks into multiple subtle mechanical stratigraphic intervals, but marly intervals with most abundant bentonites impact hydraulic fracture efficiency by limiting proppant placement to the main chalk benches. While fluid-filled fractures have rather extensive vertical propagation throughout the Niobrara A-B-C at peak pump rates, fracture offsets across bentonites and ensuing proppant embedment phenomena eventually render the main marl intervals as barriers to effective stimulation. The impact of bentonites on hydraulic stimulation efficiency was supported by proppant tracer studies in a vertical well stimulation scaled be proportionate to an individual horizontal frac stage. Bentonites changed from our “foes” to our “friends” because their impact on completions supports our multiwall development plans with separate A, B, and C horizontal well targeting. We exhibit 160’ of Niobrara core from the Whiting Razor 25-2514, Weld County, Colorado. The exhibited interval covers the productive Niobrara A chalk, the Niobrara A marl, the productive upper and lower Niobrara B chalk benches and most of the Niobrara B marl. Higher frequency cyclicity and lithologic variation is demonstrated within the chalks due to abundant, thin, black, marly interbeds up to 3” thick; conversely, the A and B marl intervals contain many, thinner, non-amalgamated chalk interbeds. The chalk interbeds within the marls have suppressed UV hydrocarbon fluorescence, probably due to UV quenching from associated elevated asphaltene content. All intervals, including the overlying Sharon Springs Member of the Pierre Shale have bentonites which range from 4” thick in the Sharon Springs to <1/8” thick within the Niobrara Marls. All the bentonites fall below wireline log resolution (with the exception of resistivity imaging), however, we emphasize their distribution with UV photos that highlight each and every bentonite based on bright UV fluorescence. Rock mechanical properties such as Poisson’s Ratio and Young’s Modulus calculated from dipole sonic logs are largely ignorant of the presence of these abundant, thin, yet very weak, ductile bentonites. Hydraulic Stimulation modeling based on wireline log properties therefore grossly underestimates the mechanical heterogeneity of the Niobrara. Furthermore, the bentonites are too thin and weak to be plugged for static rock mechanics evaluations. To address these limitations, we made extensive usage of the Equotip™ “Bambino” micro-rebound hammer to measure closely spaced Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) at least every 6” while also covering each and every one of the hundreds of thin bentonites. The UCS from the micro-rebound hammer is compared not only with wireline dipole sonic based parameters, but also with UCS from TerraTek’s “Scratch Test”. The Equotip-derived UCS curve, even when running-average-smoothed, demonstrates much greater UCS dynamic range, capturing the very weak bentonite interbeds. Not only do the bentonite (and marl) interbeds divide the chalks into multiple subtle mechanical stratigraphic intervals, but marly intervals with most abundant bentonites impact hydraulic fracture efficiency by limiting proppant placement to the main chalk benches. While fluid-filled fractures have rather extensive vertical propagation throughout the Niobrara A-B-C at peak pump rates, fracture offsets across bentonites and ensuing proppant embedment phenomena eventually render the main marl intervals as barriers to effective stimulation. The impact of bentonites on hydraulic stimulation efficiency was supported by proppant tracer studies in a vertical well stimulation scaled be proportionate to an individual horizontal frac stage. Bentonites changed from our “foes” to our “friends” because their impact on completions supports our multiwall development plans with separate A, B, and C horizontal well targeting. Panel_14812 Panel_14812 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Two emerging tight oil plays in Utah have gained significant traction in the past few years, renewing interest in two historically productive basins. The Utah Geological Survey is conducting a multi-year, U.S. Department of Energy-funded study of these two distinct tight oil plays, utilizing newly acquired core and associated data. The lacustrine Uteland Butte Member of the Green River Formation records the first major transgression of Eocene Lake Uinta after the deposition of the alluvial Colton Formation in the Uinta Basin. The main horizontal drilling objective, as analyzed in several cores, is a 2- to 7-foot-thick interval of fractured dolomite, with porosities between 14 and 30%, interbedded with organic-rich limestone and shale. TOC values in the adjacent rocks range between 2 and 5%, while Ro values range between 0.7 and 1.1%, indicating the reservoir is most likely self-sourcing. The Cane Creek shale is a transgressive-regressive marine sequence in the lower portion of the Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation, Paradox Basin. The Cane Creek is tens of feet to nearly 200 feet thick, over- and underlain by beds of salt, and divided into A, B, and C intervals (in descending order). The B interval is the primary hydrocarbon source rock and productive zone, consisting of black organic-rich shale, dolomite, dolomitic siltstone, very fine sandstone, and some anhydrite. Significant porosity (up to 15%) is found in the dolomitic siltstone and sandstone, but permeability is generally low (roughly 0.1 mD); naturally occurring fractures are necessary for economic production. The A and C intervals, mostly dolomite and anhydrite, are the seals for the B interval, helping prevent fracture communication with the adjacent salt beds. A refined geological and reservoir characterization study of these two tight oil plays, using newly acquired core and geophysical logs, is currently underway to help delineate play boundaries, guide resource estimates, and inform recovery methods. Two emerging tight oil plays in Utah have gained significant traction in the past few years, renewing interest in two historically productive basins. The Utah Geological Survey is conducting a multi-year, U.S. Department of Energy-funded study of these two distinct tight oil plays, utilizing newly acquired core and associated data. The lacustrine Uteland Butte Member of the Green River Formation records the first major transgression of Eocene Lake Uinta after the deposition of the alluvial Colton Formation in the Uinta Basin. The main horizontal drilling objective, as analyzed in several cores, is a 2- to 7-foot-thick interval of fractured dolomite, with porosities between 14 and 30%, interbedded with organic-rich limestone and shale. TOC values in the adjacent rocks range between 2 and 5%, while Ro values range between 0.7 and 1.1%, indicating the reservoir is most likely self-sourcing. The Cane Creek shale is a transgressive-regressive marine sequence in the lower portion of the Pennsylvanian Paradox Formation, Paradox Basin. The Cane Creek is tens of feet to nearly 200 feet thick, over- and underlain by beds of salt, and divided into A, B, and C intervals (in descending order). The B interval is the primary hydrocarbon source rock and productive zone, consisting of black organic-rich shale, dolomite, dolomitic siltstone, very fine sandstone, and some anhydrite. Significant porosity (up to 15%) is found in the dolomitic siltstone and sandstone, but permeability is generally low (roughly 0.1 mD); naturally occurring fractures are necessary for economic production. The A and C intervals, mostly dolomite and anhydrite, are the seals for the B interval, helping prevent fracture communication with the adjacent salt beds. A refined geological and reservoir characterization study of these two tight oil plays, using newly acquired core and geophysical logs, is currently underway to help delineate play boundaries, guide resource estimates, and inform recovery methods. Panel_14817 Panel_14817 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The coastline of South Carolina is familiar to geoscientists and petroleum engineers as a field laboratory for observing modern coastal processes as analogs for ancient sedimentary environments. Inland, the southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain physiographic province extends from the Fall Line to the shoreline and is underlain by mostly unconsolidated sediments deposited along a passive emergent margin during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The sediments of the southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain in South Carolina are stratified quartz sand, clay, calcareous sediment, and conglomerates that dip gently seaward and range from late Cretaceous to Holocene. At the United States Department of Energy Savannah River Site (SRS), the site geologic data archive includes more than 12,000 borings, wells and cone penetrometer soundings, more than 300 km (200 mi) of seismic reflection data, many kilometers of seismic refraction data, and regional soil gas chemical surveys. Many of the borings were cored and more than 50 miles of core are archived in the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) repository. The repository provides a unique opportunity to observe fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine sand, mud and calcareous sediments of the upper Atlantic Coastal Plain along with the underlying Paleozoic bedrock and Dunbarton Triassic Basin sequences. At the SRS, primary uses of the core are to understand sediment heterogeneity and resulting effect on contaminant migration, groundwater availability, drought response and other environmental applications as well as geotechnical facility siting and foundation design. Physical properties (grain size, porosity, permeability, Kd, etc.) are incorporated into radiological performance assessments and groundwater fate and transport models. Cores will be displayed that focus on the fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine sequences with discussion of depositional facies and environment, fabric and texture, and stratigraphy. A detailed environmental characterization will be featured that illustrates how SRS uses core data in real world applications to assess the environmental “water reservoir quality.” The coastline of South Carolina is familiar to geoscientists and petroleum engineers as a field laboratory for observing modern coastal processes as analogs for ancient sedimentary environments. Inland, the southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain physiographic province extends from the Fall Line to the shoreline and is underlain by mostly unconsolidated sediments deposited along a passive emergent margin during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The sediments of the southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain in South Carolina are stratified quartz sand, clay, calcareous sediment, and conglomerates that dip gently seaward and range from late Cretaceous to Holocene. At the United States Department of Energy Savannah River Site (SRS), the site geologic data archive includes more than 12,000 borings, wells and cone penetrometer soundings, more than 300 km (200 mi) of seismic reflection data, many kilometers of seismic refraction data, and regional soil gas chemical surveys. Many of the borings were cored and more than 50 miles of core are archived in the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) repository. The repository provides a unique opportunity to observe fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine sand, mud and calcareous sediments of the upper Atlantic Coastal Plain along with the underlying Paleozoic bedrock and Dunbarton Triassic Basin sequences. At the SRS, primary uses of the core are to understand sediment heterogeneity and resulting effect on contaminant migration, groundwater availability, drought response and other environmental applications as well as geotechnical facility siting and foundation design. Physical properties (grain size, porosity, permeability, Kd, etc.) are incorporated into radiological performance assessments and groundwater fate and transport models. Cores will be displayed that focus on the fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine sequences with discussion of depositional facies and environment, fabric and texture, and stratigraphy. A detailed environmental characterization will be featured that illustrates how SRS uses core data in real world applications to assess the environmental “water reservoir quality.” Panel_14816 Panel_14816 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

Sedimentological features observed in cores, along with detailed geochemical data, provide valuable insights into the variability of roof shales in Pennsylvanian rocks of the Midcontinent. These insights are valuable for predicting reservoir character for Pennsylvanian black shales that are potentially emerging plays for shale gas production. Additionally, these same features are valuable in predicting the ability of roof shales to serve as a tight seal for coalbed methane production. The USI 1-32 well is located south of the campus of the University of Southern Indiana in Vanderburgh County, Indiana. The total depth of the well is 780 feet, with cored intervals from: (1) 395 to 415; (2) 495 to 515; (3) 540 to 560; and (4) 655 to 675 feet. The cores sampled the following units from the Carbondale Group: (1) Springfield Coal of the Petersburg Formation; (2) Houchin Creek Coal and overlying Excello Shale of the Petersburg Formation; (3) Survant Coal of the Linton Formation; and (4) Seelyville Coal of the Staunton Formation. Roof shales of the Survant and Seelyville coals consist of light gray to green gray mudrocks with sparse siderite concretions. These mudrocks have TOC values ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 wt. % with total sulfur values ranging from 0.15 to 0.40 wt. % with little to no gamma ray response. These mudrocks are interpreted to have been deposited in continental settings as evidenced by low sulfur content and sparse vascular plant debris. In contrast, roof shales above the Springfield and Houchin Creek coals consist of laminated to bioturbated, black to gray mudrocks with disseminated pyrite and sparse phosphate nodules. These mudrocks have TOC values ranging from 0.9 to 27.4 wt. % with total sulfur values ranging from 0.2 to 4.6 wt. % with an elevated gamma ray response. Additionally, there is a gradual increase in bioturbation from an ichnofabric of 1 directly above the Springfield Coal to an ichnofabric of 4 at 1.5 feet above the coal. Discrete laminations within this interval also contain broken skeletal debris, including brachiopod and molluscan fauna. Likewise, the Excello Shale transitions from laminated black mudrock to bioturbated gray mudrock above the Houchin Creek Coal. In summary, the roof shales above the Springfield and Houchin Creek coals are interpreted to have been deposited in a marine setting, as evidenced by elevated sulfur content and the presence of marine fossils. Sedimentological features observed in cores, along with detailed geochemical data, provide valuable insights into the variability of roof shales in Pennsylvanian rocks of the Midcontinent. These insights are valuable for predicting reservoir character for Pennsylvanian black shales that are potentially emerging plays for shale gas production. Additionally, these same features are valuable in predicting the ability of roof shales to serve as a tight seal for coalbed methane production. The USI 1-32 well is located south of the campus of the University of Southern Indiana in Vanderburgh County, Indiana. The total depth of the well is 780 feet, with cored intervals from: (1) 395 to 415; (2) 495 to 515; (3) 540 to 560; and (4) 655 to 675 feet. The cores sampled the following units from the Carbondale Group: (1) Springfield Coal of the Petersburg Formation; (2) Houchin Creek Coal and overlying Excello Shale of the Petersburg Formation; (3) Survant Coal of the Linton Formation; and (4) Seelyville Coal of the Staunton Formation. Roof shales of the Survant and Seelyville coals consist of light gray to green gray mudrocks with sparse siderite concretions. These mudrocks have TOC values ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 wt. % with total sulfur values ranging from 0.15 to 0.40 wt. % with little to no gamma ray response. These mudrocks are interpreted to have been deposited in continental settings as evidenced by low sulfur content and sparse vascular plant debris. In contrast, roof shales above the Springfield and Houchin Creek coals consist of laminated to bioturbated, black to gray mudrocks with disseminated pyrite and sparse phosphate nodules. These mudrocks have TOC values ranging from 0.9 to 27.4 wt. % with total sulfur values ranging from 0.2 to 4.6 wt. % with an elevated gamma ray response. Additionally, there is a gradual increase in bioturbation from an ichnofabric of 1 directly above the Springfield Coal to an ichnofabric of 4 at 1.5 feet above the coal. Discrete laminations within this interval also contain broken skeletal debris, including brachiopod and molluscan fauna. Likewise, the Excello Shale transitions from laminated black mudrock to bioturbated gray mudrock above the Houchin Creek Coal. In summary, the roof shales above the Springfield and Houchin Creek coals are interpreted to have been deposited in a marine setting, as evidenced by elevated sulfur content and the presence of marine fossils. Panel_14820 Panel_14820 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

With 3D printing we can now transform our digital porosity models into physical, tangible, testable objects. Models can be printed in plastic, gypsum, silica, metal and a variety of other materials. Models can then be tested in real world lab equipment just like natural reservoir rocks. There are three general ways to make the digital porosity models that can subsequently be printed. First, computed tomography data from natural reservoir rocks can be converted to a 3D printable format. This method uses computational resources very intensively because to accurately represent the pore network in a reservoir rock sample the size of a pencil eraser often requires 10’s of gigabytes of data. Second, computer-aided design software can be used to build simple porous models from primitive objects. This method is much less computational intensive, but it can be time intensive for the porosity architect to build a model out of individual volume elements. Third, complex geometries can be generated by using geometrical and/or statistical algorithms (e.g. periodic minimal surfaces). This method can produce complex pore networks that mimic natural systems quickly through the manipulation of various mathematical variables, though it can be somewhat time and computationally intensive to generate the digital models. This presentation will discuss these three methods for making digital models as well as show results of printing models made with these different methods using different materials (e.g. plastic, metal, and mineral matter). In addition, a comparison of 3D printer resolution will be made among the printed materials. A discussion of these results will provide a framework for experimentalists to pick the right methods and materials for building porosity models to test petrophysical hypotheses. With 3D printing we can now transform our digital porosity models into physical, tangible, testable objects. Models can be printed in plastic, gypsum, silica, metal and a variety of other materials. Models can then be tested in real world lab equipment just like natural reservoir rocks. There are three general ways to make the digital porosity models that can subsequently be printed. First, computed tomography data from natural reservoir rocks can be converted to a 3D printable format. This method uses computational resources very intensively because to accurately represent the pore network in a reservoir rock sample the size of a pencil eraser often requires 10’s of gigabytes of data. Second, computer-aided design software can be used to build simple porous models from primitive objects. This method is much less computational intensive, but it can be time intensive for the porosity architect to build a model out of individual volume elements. Third, complex geometries can be generated by using geometrical and/or statistical algorithms (e.g. periodic minimal surfaces). This method can produce complex pore networks that mimic natural systems quickly through the manipulation of various mathematical variables, though it can be somewhat time and computationally intensive to generate the digital models. This presentation will discuss these three methods for making digital models as well as show results of printing models made with these different methods using different materials (e.g. plastic, metal, and mineral matter). In addition, a comparison of 3D printer resolution will be made among the printed materials. A discussion of these results will provide a framework for experimentalists to pick the right methods and materials for building porosity models to test petrophysical hypotheses. Panel_14815 Panel_14815 8:30 AM 5:00 PM

The Codell Sandstone has been producing gas and oil in the Colorado/Wyoming DJ Basin since 1979. Due to relatively good porosity but low permeability Codell production has historically been restricted to the Wattenberg Field where thermal maturity of the Codell is in the gas window. Recent advances in horizontal drilling and multi-stage fracture stimulations have extended the play outside of Wattenberg Field into the northern DJ Basin. Stabilized production rates up to 1300 BOPD are associated with recently completed horizontal Codell wells. This new play area in Laramie County, Wyoming and northern Weld County, Colorado is thermally in the oil window with gas-oil ratios less than 2000 scf/bbl. The Codell Sandstone was deposited on the eastern side of the Western Interior Seaway by storm events during Late Cretaceous time. The Codell is a very-fine to fine-grained sand and produces oil from two main facies: bioturbated sandstone and laminated sandstone. The laminated facies is parallel to sub-horizontally bedded with some hummocky cross-stratification, it has 8 to 15 percent porosity and 0.01 to 0.10 millidarcies permeability. The bioturbated sandstone has 8 to 13 percent porosity and .008 to 0.05 millidarcies permeability. The Codell is a low-resistivity pay zone that produces oil with low water cuts from zones with less than 10 ohm-m resistivity. Clay content 15-25% with abundant microporosity in feldspars as imaged with epifluorescent microscopy account for high bound water content and explains low formation resistivity. The Codell thins from north to south due to erosional truncation beneath an angular unconformity at the base of the Fort Hayes Limestone Member of the Niobrara Formation. Gross thickness ranges from 18 to 33 feet. Two Codell cores from Laramie County, WY provide examples of the two depositional facies. The Noble Berry UN #13-09 core recovered 28.5 feet of Codell Sandstone, including 27 feet of bioturbated facies and 1.5 feet of laminated facies. The Cirque Laguna #8-8-2CH core recovered 20 feet of Codell Sandstone, including 13 feet of bioturbated facies and 7 feet of laminated facies. Core oil saturations and fluorescence under UV light indicate that the Codell Sandstone is oil saturated in both cores. Nearby horizontal wells drilled and completed in the Codell Sandstone indicate that oil can be recovered economically extending Codell production more than 50 miles north of Wattenberg Field. The Codell Sandstone has been producing gas and oil in the Colorado/Wyoming DJ Basin since 1979. Due to relatively good porosity but low permeability Codell production has historically been restricted to the Wattenberg Field where thermal maturity of the Codell is in the gas window. Recent advances in horizontal drilling and multi-stage fracture stimulations have extended the play outside of Wattenberg Field into the northern DJ Basin. Stabilized production rates up to 1300 BOPD are associated with recently completed horizontal Codell wells. This new play area in Laramie County, Wyoming and northern Weld County, Colorado is thermally in the oil window with gas-oil ratios less than 2000 scf/bbl. The Codell Sandstone was deposited on the eastern side of the Western Interior Seaway by storm events during Late Cretaceous time. The Codell is a very-fine to fine-grained sand and produces oil from two main facies: bioturbated sandstone and laminated sandstone. The laminated facies is parallel to sub-horizontally bedded with some hummocky cross-stratification, it has 8 to 15 percent porosity and 0.01 to 0.10 millidarcies permeability. The bioturbated sandstone has 8 to 13 percent porosity and .008 to 0.05 millidarcies permeability. The Codell is a low-resistivity pay zone that produces oil with low water cuts from zones with less than 10 ohm-m resistivity. Clay content 15-25% with abundant microporosity in feldspars as imaged with epifluorescent microscopy account for high bound water content and explains low formation resistivity. The Codell thins from north to south due to erosional truncation beneath an angular unconformity at the base of the Fort Hayes Limestone Member of the Niobrara Formation. Gross thickness ranges from 18 to 33 feet. Two Codell cores from Laramie County, WY provide examples of the two depositional facies. The Noble Berry UN #13-09 core recovered 28.5 feet of Codell Sandstone, including 27 feet of bioturbated facies and 1.5 feet of laminated facies. The Cirque Laguna #8-8-2CH core recovered 20 feet of Codell Sandstone, including 13 feet of bioturbated facies and 7 feet of laminated facies. Core oil saturations and fluorescence under UV light indicate that the Codell Sandstone is oil saturated in both cores. Nearby horizontal wells drilled and completed in the Codell Sandstone indicate that oil can be recovered economically extending Codell production more than 50 miles north of Wattenberg Field. Panel_14822 Panel_14822 8:30 AM 5:00 PM